The publication of the British-Georgian exploration of Dariali Gorge (2013–2016) represents a substantial benchmark for the archaeology of the Caucasus, above all else for its multi-faceted approach. While numerous international and local projects continue a well-established tradition of archaeological research in the region, few have attempted the breadth of interdisciplinary work presented in this book. The result is a remarkably rich resource, illustrating to Anglophone academia in particular the archaeology of a region often portrayed as marginal. At the same time, the inclusion of a full synopsis in Georgian at the end of the volume (Naskidashvili) underscores the continued importance of collaboration across linguistic barriers.
The two substantial physical volumes are in fact one continuous narrative, bound separately for convenience. Indeed, as a single bibliography is only included at the end, the two tomes are inseparable. That said, there is a logical break between the data presented in Volume 1, which details the multiple excavations and surveys of the project, and Volume 2, comprising a series of specialist contributions on individual categories of finds. The focus throughout is on the fortified buildings of the narrow Dariali Gorge, in particular the remains of a castle high on a rocky outcrop above the Tergi/Terek River, on the modern Georgian border with Russia.
The significance of the archaeological remains, as set out in the introduction by the project director, Eberhard W. Sauer, lies in their strategic location on one of the few passes through the Great Caucasus mountain range, and one of global fame. For the dar-e alan (Gate of the Alans), or the Caspian Gates as it is sometimes called, is referenced in Classical texts of the first century AD onwards, and was later made legendary as the rocky cleft where Prometheus was chained in perpetual torture. The pass was also an important frontier post in the Sasanian world, attested in monumental inscriptions, such as those at Nashq-e Rostam (Iran). The framework for the discussion, then, is the Imperial control of this strategic location, the defence of which, the authors argue, was fuelled by threat of invasion from nomadic groups labelled “the Huns” and “the Alans”, who inhabited the steppe zone to the north of the Caucasus.
Having identified the particular site of Dariali Fort (or Tamar's Fort) as the probable late antique bastion of the Caspian Gates, the project undertook a number of excavations to ascertain the nature of the Gorge's defences through time. Of the 28 areas opened, two main trenches in the fortress (F and Q) form the bulk of the stratigraphic discussion, charting the development of this building. The lowest layers in Trench F provided the earliest material from this fortification, radiocarbon dated to the fourth to fifth centuries. The authors conclude that the most substantial exterior walls originated in the 390s or early 400s, and represent a structure that was subsequently occupied and modified for more than 1000 years (with notable hiatuses), also seeing some modern reoccupation. Owing to a dearth of comparative material from the early layers and a desire to establish an independent chronological sequence, the excavators relied largely on stratigraphy and extensive radiocarbon dating to phase the building. That the bulk of the dates, and particularly the earliest ones, are individual samples of animal bone seems like an unusual choice, given the high chance of their re-deposition in “make-up layers”. The authors are nonetheless confident that the late fourth century constitutes the initial building phase for this structure, hence the connection with historically attested threats from people labelled “the Huns”. Moreover, owing to earlier Classical sources that mention the pass and the gates, there is considerable discussion of fortification of the rocky outcrop and the Gorge prior to the late antique period. That there was no earlier archaeological evidence, the authors argue, results from complete clearing of the bedrock in late antiquity in order to establish new foundations, but without proof, earlier occupation remains hypothetical.
One aspect that would have assisted the reader greatly is a legible topographical plan of the fort, including the standing non-excavated walls and the plateau on which they are located. Given that the project employed drone photography and laser-scanning to overcome the difficulties of the treacherous terrain, it is unclear why such a map of the fort was omitted. It is worth stressing that the volume is lavishly illustrated with photographs throughout, but the lack of such plans, and indeed elevations, for which photogrammetry would be quick and ideal, make it difficult to imagine a complete layout of the structures and to visualise the remains from the trenches in relation to each other.
Excavations were not limited to the single fortification, and a series of trenches were made in the neighbouring fortress of Gveleti (seemingly occupied from the late first millennium AD onwards), as well as interesting investigations into several groups of medieval stone-lined graves nearby (seventh to tenth centuries AD) (Chapters 6 & 9). Grave goods from the latter included an impressive sword, the steel metallurgy of which receives detailed examination in Chapter 16, as well as a number of beads and personal items providing a contrasting perspective on the life of the valley's inhabitants. Regional parallels seem to indicate enduring local traditions in burial practice, perhaps influenced in some respects from their northern and southern neighbours. The expansion of these observations to determine religion or ethnicity, however, risks stretching the limits of the data. Moreover, although there is very detailed and useful discussion of the human remains including skeletal metric/non-metric data in Chapter 19, the craniofacial link with geographic ancestry treads difficult ground. Similarly, the consideration that no graves remain from the late antique period because the soldiers manning the pass were Zoroastrians is highly speculative, as is the odd suggestion that this may also explain “tidier” phases in the garrison, lacking in artefacts (p. 112).
A crucial factor of the work lies in the landscape analysis undertaken, both in terms of additional fortifications and installations (for example, a road blocking wall, and the elaborate water supply of the fort), but also the extensive regional survey written up by Hopper et al. (Chapter 10, and also Appendix III on canal systems in another region). One of the many conclusions of this work is the role of a careful and long-lived land management system within the valley, refocusing our attention on the local population, who were practising a mixture of pastoral and agricultural lifeways in what might otherwise be considered difficult terrain. This picture reinforces the hints from Gveleti of local daily life in the pass alongside its more frequently mentioned military inhabitants.
The second volume begins with Priestman's detailed analysis of the ceramic vessels from the various excavations. This contribution is significant in part because quantitative documentation of full ceramic assemblages is comparatively rare in the region and petrographic studies are underdeveloped for medieval sites. Comparative fabrics and petrography allowed the author to determine significant provisioning of ceramic artefacts from regions to the north and south of the pass, stressing the economic connectedness of this landscape, quite apart from its role as a frontier. The shifts in the quantities from north vs south are difficult to interpret definitively, given the low quantity of ceramics in some phases and the use of weight/count proxies in the place of estimated vessel equivalence. The lack of observed change in form over time, and the dearth of comparative coarseware typologies, unfortunately means that the phasing of the ceramics relies almost entirely on the radiocarbon and stratigraphic dating, rather than each reinforcing the other.
Other ceramic artefacts and small finds are treated with astonishing attention to detail, which is so often lacking in published archaeological studies (Chapters 12, 15, & 17–18), while there is an extended discussion on the superbly preserved glass (Chapter 13). The latter is organised by fabric before decorative technique and form, which proves confusing in places, but is presumably arranged as such in order to mesh with the chemical analysis of provenance, the latter suggesting that Dariali was connected to a wide network of both locally produced and exotic glass (Chapter 14).
Like many sections of the volume, the zooarchaeological and archaeobotanical studies are pioneering in scope for the region, as while studies of this type are increasing, we are still at the stage of building corpora of comparable data. The zooarchaeological study (Chapter 21), which identifies some rare wild fauna as well as a fairly stable exploitation of sheep/goat/cattle, is paired with a useful dietary isotopic analysis of the human remains (Chapter 20). Meanwhile, the anthracological, archaeobotanical and palynological assessment by Shumilovskikh contributes an intricate account of land use and environment over more than two millennia (Chapter 22). Finally, experimental techniques such as archaeomagnetic and geoarchaeological work showcase the breadth of the interdisciplinary team (Chapters 23–24) and the importance of encouraging the application of these techniques across a greater number of sites in the region.
In spite of the inspirational archaeological work presented in this volume, the sizable concluding chapter on the history of Dariali gives a palpable sense of the disappointment of the authors at the lack of remains from Classical Antiquity, as well as stressing the importance of matching the archaeological and historical data. I would argue, instead, that the archaeology presented for the late antique, but more substantially the medieval, period, on its own represents a crucial contribution for understanding local, regional and imperial dynamics in the Caucasus. That the mountain pass of Prometheus, attested by Classical authors should remain enigmatic is, in my view, inevitable: “Da sie aus einem Wahrheitsgrund kommt, muß sie wieder im Unerklärlichen enden [As it comes out of a ground of truth, it has again to end in the inexplicable]” (Kafka Reference Kafka1931: Prometheus).
