In contemporary political life we see a tendency to employ inimical generalisations as a means of furthering personal perspectives. Oversimplifications also appear in our historical perspectives, and L.’s book provides a refreshing correction of inaccurate stereotypes that have been made about the Pilgrims who founded the Plymouth colony. Through a comprehensive investigation of primary and secondary sources and a meticulous marshalling of research that takes him from probate inventories to variances between book editions, L. maintains that two fundamental errors have occurred in the assessment of the Separatists’ classical learning. Both contemporaries of the Plymouth Separatists and later scholars have argued on the one hand that they were ignorant of classical learning or even hostile to it, on the other, that they possessed a first-hand knowledge of classical languages and texts. L. situates himself within this discussion by arguing that classical learning was limited in Plymouth Plantation but still played a role in shaping the self-identity of the colony and the means by which that identity was expressed.
Chapter 1 establishes a wider context for classical learning in New England by examining the knowledge of classical antiquity displayed in promotional tracts that urged settlement. Similar to later inhabitants of New England, the authors of these tracts possessed widely diverse levels of classical learning, but, together, their portrayals of New England drew on Graeco-Roman models, particularly as positive exemplars in establishing overseas colonies and predicting future greatness. Chapter 2 addresses Thomas Morton, the self-appointed leader of the Ma-re Mount settlement, who set himself up as a paragon of intellect and classical learning in contradistinction to the Pilgrims and proclaimed them ‘elephants of wit’ (p. 107). The book concludes with two chapters on the availability of sources of classical knowledge in the Plymouth settlement and on William Bradford's use of classical quotations and references within the colony's historical context.
Throughout, L. shines as a classical scholar who is equipped to address the misinterpretations and simplistic readings that have arisen in previous scholarship. When Americanists such as John Seelye and Alden T. Vaughan have attempted to comment on early New England writers’ use of the Classics, they have been in danger of overstating the role of the Classics or of confusing the Latin quotations and references. Even more problematic, inaccurate readings of classical allusions, such as those made by Jack Dempsey, have been perpetuated by later scholars. Notably, these errors have been made by historians who lack knowledge of classical culture, languages and authors, and L. is adept at identifying and correcting them. Even when dealing with the work of those more versed in antiquity, such as Thomas Lodge's 1614 translation of Seneca, L. engages in a clever dialogue with the reading that leads to a deeper and more accurate understanding of the original text.
The antithesis between Morton and Bradford is a strong point of the book's analysis. Morton's early belittling of the Separatists’ lack of knowledge was countered by Cotton Mather's assertion that Bradford had mastered Greek and Latin, was proficient in Hebrew and had a thorough understanding of antiquity. When scrutinised, Morton's own claims to classical knowledge prove unfounded. Despite his ostentatious display of learning, Morton's writing reveals only a superficial and second-hand knowledge of ancient authors, a lack of understanding in Latin and a confusing of classical allusions. In regard to Bradford, there is no evidence that he was against book learning or the reading of secular classical authors, but neither was he a classical scholar. Complete volumes of classical authors were rare, although a large amount of classical knowledge was available through secondary sources. L. puts forward a credible and well-supported depiction of Bradford as one who sought out books containing classical knowledge, spent his declining years in an earnest though amateur study of the classical languages, and who at times presented the settlement's establishment and purpose in light of classical models. The final chapter presents the most intriguing read as it delves into Bradford's reading of passages from Seneca, Pliny and Ovid, and his application of them to the Plymouth Separatists. On this point, L. convincingly refutes Bernard Bailyn's portrayal of ‘Bradford's lamentation’ on the disappointing results of the settlement (p. 312); instead, he argues that, ‘Surely there lurks in Bradford's appropriation of Pliny the Elder's account of early Rome the suggestion that Plymouth Plantation, for all of the threats attending its growth, was destined for greatness, as was the humble little settlement on the bend of the Tiber’ (p. 313).
It must be confessed that L.’s conclusions on the limited availability and influence of classical learning in the Plymouth colony are neither astounding nor momentous, but he accomplishes his objective. The ‘teleological’ method, which views New England as the originating source of American political and social structures, may produce more fascinating results, but also has the potential to create polarised perspectives of historical groups. Instead, L. defends a methodology based on the Pilgrim's own representations of themselves (p. 363), and he follows it by providing detailed research and cautious conclusions, refraining from speculation and correcting others whose enthusiasm has taken them into that realm. While this approach may result in less engrossing reading and limit readers to those whose research leads them into this field, it also produces nuanced and well-proven claims that provide a firm foundation for future scholarship.
The American founding period has been an area of sustained effort in classical reception studies. M. Reinhold, C.J. Richard, C. Winterer, M. Malamud and others have investigated the direct influence of classical antiquity in America from the eighteenth century onwards. Early New England, however, has been the focus of less study. L.’s work presents the first attempt to bring together all the evidence of classical knowledge in Plymouth Plantation and nearby communities. His thorough account of this peripheral settlement's engagement with classical learning is an exemplary analysis of classical reception and a worthy addition to Brill's series on early American history. As scholars in American studies seek to understand history better and interpret data accurately, L.’s work demonstrates the crucial need for a classicist's voice to be included in the conversation.
