This volume is the third of the journal Brill Research Perspectives in Ancient History. Each volume is comprised of a single extended article, in which an author evaluates the status quaestionis on an important topic within the field. McI.’s contribution considers the latest scholarship on the so-called Roman imperial cult, covering the advent of Divus Iulius to the rise of Constantine. McI. addresses a range of topics, including problematic terminology, source difficulties and major approaches in the field through short case studies that consider important topics in easily digestible sections. The short length provides an accessible overview of a complicated field, but also imposes limitations, which McI. readily acknowledges.
The study is divided into five sections, with a short introduction and conclusion. The introduction presents some problems related to the study of Roman imperial cult, including the problematic nature of the term, which is a modern invention (p. 2). Here McI. provides an informative overview of important controversies in the study of the imperial cult, including whether the imperial cult is borrowed from Hellenistic or local practices (or both), the difficulties of terminology and Roman conceptions of divinity, and whether imperial family members were worshipped in their lifetime. These issues are complicated by the nature of the surviving sources, including contradictory literary sources and incomplete documentary evidence. From here, McI. segues to the plan of study, providing a helpful overview of each section and laying out the thesis that the study of imperial cult reveals ‘individualised decisions, careful negotiation, local traditions, and circumstances’ (p. 6).
Section 1, ‘Talking about the Gods: Terminology Associated with the Imperial Cult’, addresses debates over Hellenistic or localised Roman origins of the idea of human deification. Literary and archaeological evidence can lead to conflicting conclusions on this question. The problem is further complicated by philological difficulties including changing, contradictory and conflated application of Greek and Latin terms used to describe new gods, and the consideration of whether vocabulary choices are made for political or religious reasons. McI. traces the use of important terms associated with the developing imperial cult, including divus/diva, the Greek hemitheos, heros and huios theou to approximate divus (pp. 6–9), as well as divine terms associated with living emperors, such as genius and numen, and the later application of domus Augusta and domus divina to the imperial family (pp. 9–12). By means of a case study of the honours applied to Julius Caesar, McI. demonstrates that the use of terminology was inconsistent, with sources providing conflicting accounts that make any definitive conclusions about a precise process of deification impossible to construct. Instead, the sources reveal a process of negotiation between Caesar, the Senate and the people to confer exceptional powers, a process, McI. argues, that Octavian learned from and actively negotiated by reorganising the Lares compitales and establishing the Augustales (pp. 25–9).
Section 2, ‘Gods at Rome: Divine Funerals and Physical Monuments’, considers the creation of rituals and monuments to secure the divine legacy of an emperor. Subsection 2.1 examines the ‘divine funeral’, beginning with the way in which Octavian/Augustus built upon Caesar's funeral, which itself built upon republican funerary rites, in order to ensure his deification and legacy. McI. identifies three components of the divine funeral: symbols of apotheosis, a witness of the soul's journey and the eulogy (pp. 30–1). These elements are traced from Augustus through the Julio-Claudian period. McI. explores the changing interplay between the Senate and the emperor in determining whether an individual was worthy of deification. Subsection 2.2 considers the construction of temples for deified individuals, beginning with the temple of Divus Iulius, and the role of imperial patronage of temple construction in securing imperial legacy, such as Vespasian's reconstruction of the temple of Divus Claudius to distance himself from Nero (p. 37). After the death of Marcus Aurelius the dedication of statues to diui in pre-existing structures replaced the dedication of individual temples, and the worship of individuals gave way to a communal family of gods.
Section 3, ‘Negotiating with the Divine: Three Case Studies’, demonstrates the importance of localised case studies in understanding the imperial cult in the provinces, especially when distinguishing between the worship of living and of deified emperors, between citizen and non-citizen worship, and the status derived by hosting imperial cults (p. 44). McI. adduces three examples, beginning with Cassius Dio 51.20.6–8, according to which Augustus permitted Ephesus and Nicaea to host temples to Roma and Divus Julius, and allowed temples built in his honour in Pergamum and Nicomedia. McI. argues that rather than considering Octavian's motivations, it is perhaps best to consider Dio's literary construction of emperors in his own context, establishing a reluctance to accept citizen worship as a hallmark of ‘good’ emperors, in contrast to contemporary emperors such as Commodus and Elagabalus (p. 48). McI. notes that localised cults were individualised and the result of negotiations between local communities in an attempt to secure favoured status, while the emperor guided and shaped the practices of local cults. The second case study considers Tacitus, Annals 4.37, in which Tiberius declined the request of Hispana Ulterior to build a temple to the emperor and Livia. Tacitus’ literary construction is important here, as he is keen to establish Tiberius’ moderatio, and epigraphic evidence demonstrates that Tiberius did in fact permit the establishment of priesthoods to himself and Livia. Finally, McI. looks at the example of the rescript of Hispellum issued by Constantine, which granted a request to build a temple to the Gens Flavia. Once more, localised negotiations between communities in the empire and competition between local communities is highlighted.
Section 4, ‘Worshipping the Gods: Priesthoods, Sacrifices, and Festivals’, notes that the ubiquitous nature of the imperial cult makes the worship of the emperor and his family impossible to cover in a single study. This section discusses major trends and important regional studies that make the study of imperial cult more manageable. McI. examines the priesthoods devoted to the imperial cult, their development, the nature of rituals, the limitations of surviving evidence and the importance of documentary evidence, such as the Acta Fratrum Arvalium or calendars such as the Feriale Duranum, in informing the worship of the imperial family, especially the importance of birthdays (pp. 68–9).
Section 5, ‘Christianity and the Imperial Cult’, highlights cooperation between scholars of Classical and Biblical Studies. Similarities between biblical accounts of the resurrection and ascension offer points of comparison with imperial rituals surrounding apotheosis. Titles such as Kyrios or divi filius used to describe both emperors and Jesus Christ offer opportunities for further study. This section concludes with a call for greater interdisciplinary exchange (pp. 70–1).
McI. finishes with a brief summary, which recaps modern scholarly trends and the importance of case studies. McI. argues for a greater focus on the study of the worship of the imperial family over the worship of individual emperors, and the value of localised imperial cult practice in understanding the relationship between the capital and the imperial periphery (pp. 73–7).
There is much to commend in this volume. Classicists and ancient historians of other fields will find it an excellent refresher or source for classroom prep. Advanced students of the imperial cult will find that McI. has done much of the legwork in terms of bibliography and highlighting major issues. This short work will make a handy reference for any library or syllabus on Roman cultural history or religion.
The short nature of this volume also comes with weaknesses. While much is covered, the depth on individual topics is limited. Those looking for concrete answers may be unsatisfied. Scholars of religious studies may find the discussion about the complex interactions between religion and politics to be lacking. McI. readily admits such shortcomings and can hardly be blamed considering the constraints.
