In recent decades, Apuleius’ Metamorphoses has received a large amount of scholarly attention.Footnote 1 As argued by Benson in his 2019 book, ‘the impressive array of monographs on the Metamorphoses published since 1985 [the date of Winkler's Auctor & Actor] is a testament to … the high interest in Apuleius’.Footnote 2 The Metamorphoses has increased in popularity especially in light of both the embedded story of Cupid and Psyche (hereafter, C&P) and the controversial Book 11; while the first ten books of Apuleius’ novel focus on the entertaining adventures of the protagonist Lucius, who undergoes a metamorphosis into an ass, the final book surprises readers by narrating his conversion to the Egyptian goddess Isis along with his transformation back into a man.
For the purpose of this paper, I will only discuss what I consider to be the two most relevant tenets of Apuleian scholarship.Footnote 3 First, since Late Antiquity many scholars have tried to establish whether the Metamorphoses has a serious nature, based on Lucius’ conversion in Book 11, or a comic one, as suggested by the previous ten books and the arguable irony hidden in Book 11.Footnote 4 More recently, interpreters have replaced the serious reading of Apuleius’ novel with seriocomic ones.Footnote 5 Second, many scholars have stressed the importance of a second-time reading of Apuleius’ Metamorphoses, since it sheds new light on the apparent disconnect between Books 1–10 and Book 11.Footnote 6
C&P is a prime example of the value of a second-time reading, since this famous, embedded narrative, which lies at the very centre of the novel, is usually read in the light of Book 11.Footnote 7 According to this reading, Psyche's life becomes parallel to Lucius’: both characters share an initial exposition to malignant deities, a fall owing to their immoral curiosity, and a final, undeserved salvation from a divine entity (Cupid and Isis respectively). As a result, readings of Book 11 determine the interpretation of C&P.Footnote 8
On the other hand, some Apuleian scholars have tried to distance themselves from this established framework by arguing that the Metamorphoses, through its focus on curiosity, wonder and pleasure, highlights the importance of Lucius’ emotions.Footnote 9 I define this approach as a first-time reading of the Metamorphoses, as it does not require readers to reach Book 11 in order to appreciate the novel. Generally, this reading is less popular than a second-time reading and, although it covers most books of this novel, it has difficulty in taking account of C&P.
In 2019 Benson tried to overcome this difficulty. Relying upon Walter Pater's interpretation of this story,Footnote 10 Benson argued that ‘C&P is written in such a way that readers see Psyche's world’,Footnote 11 and his analysis stresses the narrative's focus on her imagination and vision.Footnote 12 As it develops, however, this promising study seems to contradict its own premises, since it draws from Book 11 of the Metamorphoses. Benson discusses how repetitions of motifs in C&P foreshadow events of Lucius’ life narrated in the following books,Footnote 13 thus diverting the readers’ attention away from their first-time response to the story. Ultimately, Benson turns out to offer another fascinating second-time reading of C&P.
This article will reinforce the growing scholarly interest in first-time readings of the Metamorphoses by taking C&P as a story centred around the readers’ immersion in the account of Psyche's experience of Cupid. As I will explain shortly, I draw the notion of immersion from recent developments in cognitive narratology, according to which certain triggers within narrative texts allow the readers to be immersed, namely ‘to be absorbed in a virtual world such that one experiences it—to a certain extent—as if it were the actual world’.Footnote 14
My choice of a reader-response analysis of C&P is indebted to Winkler's above-mentioned monograph Auctor & Actor, which, among its numerous merits, has made reader-response theory a fruitful tool with which to understand Apuleius’ Metamorphoses. Winkler's reader-response criticism is primarily informed by the works of Wolfgang Iser, Stanley Fish and Hans Robert Jauss, all of which focus on readers’ search for meaning within texts.Footnote 15 In the light of this model, Winkler identifies in the Metamorphoses a ‘hermeneutic entertainment’Footnote 16 that is born from the presence of ‘many jokes, structural ironies, and explicit discussions concerning stories that take on new meanings at the end, particularly those that require a category shift or radical revision of sense’.Footnote 17
However, in his same work Winkler combines this intellectual model of reader-response with the readers’ emotional participation in the narrative. In chapter 6, Winkler draws the important distinction between Lucius the narrator (auctor) and Lucius the character (actor)Footnote 18 before arguing that in Apuleius’ novel ‘each event of the past is told for immediate effect …’,Footnote 19 so that ‘the first-reader requires no explanation for the many kinds of novelty, reversal, and unprepared shock in the AA’.Footnote 20
While throughout his book Winkler prioritizes the readers’ intellectual response over their emotional one, the latter has been taken seriously by the scholars whom I listed earlier as first-time readers of Apuleius (that is, Heath, Slater, Freudenburg, Kirichenko, Graverini and Benson), with the sole exception of Schlam and the addition of Kenny.Footnote 21 In different ways all of them argue that the readers’ response to specific sections of the Metamorphoses consists in their identification with Lucius’ thoughts and emotions, a model of reading which includes the intellectual response but goes beyond that. My paper builds upon Winkler's and these other scholars’ focus on identification with Lucius by exploiting the so-called second wave of cognitive studies, which has offered a new, embodied model of reader-response, focussed on the interaction between the reader's mind and body, including emotions and movements.Footnote 22 Immersion is one of the major effects triggered by this embodied model of reading.
In Part 1 of my article, I will look at the prologue to the Metamorphoses and relate its metaliterary agenda to the cognitive and literary notion of immersion. In Part 2, I will argue that the motifs in the prologue are re-enacted during the scene of C&P which is set in Cupid's palace, so that its metaliterary agenda may apply to this tale as well. In Part 3, I will show how this immersive reading does apply to selected sections of C&P by highlighting the story's focus on Psyche's experience of Cupid. I will then conclude by discussing ways in which this article reinforces the importance of an immersive reading to an understanding of the entire novel.
PART 1: THE PROLOGUE'S CONTRACT AND ITS INVITATION TO AN IMMERSIVE READING
The famous prologue of Apuleius’ Metamorphoses offers the reader a ‘contract’ of expectations, which is then ‘carried out as the reader proceeds linearly through the text’.Footnote 23 Many aspects of this prologue are much debated among scholars. In this paper, guided by my interest in a first-time reading of the Metamorphoses, I focus on the prologue's direct engagement with the readers and interpret it as inviting an immersive reading of the entire novel.Footnote 24 The prologue begins thus (1.1.1; my transl.):
at ego tibi sermone isto Milesio uarias fabulas conseram
Come, let me stitch together various tales for you in this Milesian conversationFootnote 25
Here the Metamorphoses is introduced as ‘an oral story to be heard by an audience’.Footnote 26 The phrase uarias fabulas conseram exploits the famous metaphor of weaving for storytelling,Footnote 27 and the adjective uarias hints at ‘the Greek poetic concept of ποικιλία’.Footnote 28
Second, the identity of the speaker is debated.Footnote 29 Since no information is given about the speaker's appearance, we can define him as an anonymous disembodied voice.Footnote 30
Third, the prologue makes mention of sweet entertainment, seduction, curiosity and wonder, which are key elements of the contract which the prologue-speaker establishes with the reader (1.1.1):
auresque tuas beniuolas lepido susurro permulceam
and let me beguile your ears into approval with a sweet whispering
The phrase lepido susurro, taken in combination with the previous mention of the Milesian tales,Footnote 31 offers the reader sweet entertainment, while aures tuas beniuolas permulceam promises seduction. Moreover, since the verb permulcere is a close Latin equivalent to the Greek verb θέλγειν, which in Homer is the marker of the Sirens’ enchanting song, the seductive voice of the speaker in the prologue can even be associated with that of the Sirens.Footnote 32 Immediately after this, the reader is asked to be curious (1.1.1):
modo si papyrum Aegyptiam argutia Nilotici calami inscriptam non spreueris inspicere
at least if you will not disdain to take a look at Egyptian pages written with the cleverness of a Nilotic pen
As argued by GCA 2007, ‘here, in view of the ambiguous status of “Egyptian” writings and the possibly negative attitude implied by spreueris, inspicere may connote carefulness in taking a look at something potentially treacherous’.Footnote 33 This carefulness in turn implies curiosity, since inspicere in its only other occurrence in the Metamorphoses is used when Psyche is urged not to look (ne uelis … inspicere) inside the jar she has to carry to Venus (6.19.7).Footnote 34
Finally, the reader is promised to be astonished by the text (1.1.2, 1.1.6):
figuras fortunasque hominum in alias imagines conuersas et in se rursum mutuo nexu refectas ut mireris, exordior. … lector intende: laetaberis.
How men's forms and fortunes are transformed into other appearances and then in mutual reciprocity restored again to their former state, I start telling, to make you marvel. … Reader, pay attention: you will be delighted.
The final pledge of this passage, ‘you will be delighted’, reinforces the above-mentioned invitation to enjoy the story's sweet entertainment.
In sum, the prologue offers readers a contract which promises that the novel will entertain, seduce and astonish them, and stimulate their curiosity.
In the first books of the novel, Lucius dutifully fulfils this contract, since he experiences a range of emotions in his many adventures, and in most cases these experiences are thematically connected to the prologue.
At the beginning of Book 2, Lucius thus describes himself as follows (2.1.1; my transl.):
nimis cupidus cognoscendi quae rara miraque sunt
too desirous of finding out the rare and the miraculous
While the word mira implies Lucius’ desire to be astonished, which reflects one of the prologue's invitations (ut mireris), the phrase cupidus cognoscendi expresses his curiosity. Furthermore, Photis’ seduction leads Lucius to experience ‘pleasure’ (uoluptas),Footnote 35 as he himself declares before kissing her (2.10.1; my transl.):
nec diutius quiui tantum cruciatum uoluptatis eximiae sustinere
I could not stand the exquisite agony of this uncommon pleasure any longer
Since pleasure is an intensified form of entertainment, Lucius’ relationship with Photis reinforces his experience of the prologue's message.
Later in Book 2, Lucius again fulfils the same contract while contemplating Byrrhena's atrium:Footnote 36 dum haec identidem rimabundus eximie delector ‘As I was examining every detail of the group with the utmost enjoyment’, 2.5.1. Here Lucius expresses curiosity and enjoys entertainment, both of which are key features of the prologue. This statement is highlighted by the adjective rimabundus (‘examining’), which ‘is likely to be Apuleius’ own invention, built on analogy with adjectives of the mirabundus type’.Footnote 37 This memory of mirabundus, ‘full of wonder’, reinforces Lucius’ execution of the prologue's contract. Furthermore, this sentence is followed by Byrrhena's promise to Lucius: tua sunt … cuncta quae uides (‘All that you see is yours’, 2.5.1),Footnote 38 which emphasizes his full participation in the house's beauty.
As suggested by Graverini, throughout these passages Lucius’ feelings and responses are offered to the readers as an appeal to identify with him, so that they may also fulfil the prologue's contract through their own reading of the novel.Footnote 39 This identification also applies to other characters of the Metamorphoses, starting from the first secondary narrator of Book 1, Aristomenes, who expresses curiosity (1.18.1) and wonder (1.11.1).Footnote 40 The latter feeling arises in response to Socrates’ narrative (1.11.1):
‘mira’, inquam, ‘nec minus saeua, mi Socrates, memoras. denique mihi quoque non paruam incussisti sollicitudinem, immo uero formidinem’
‘You relate astonishing tales’, I said, ‘and no less harrowing, my dear Socrates. Yes, you have struck me too with no slight anxiety, or rather fright’
Here mira again represents a pointed echo of the prologue's verb mireris (‘to make you marvel’). Moreover, since Socrates’ narrative, because of its focus on transformations, resembles the novel as a whole,Footnote 41 Aristomenes’ wonder is offered to the readers as a model response to both this passage and the Metamorphoses as a whole. Similarly, curiosity is presented to readers throughout the novel until Book 11.Footnote 42
Overall, taking up Benson's recent suggestion, Apuleius’ extension of this contract and the readers’ fulfilment of it through different sections of the Metamorphoses can be better understood through the lens of the cognitive and literary notions of immersion.Footnote 43 Apuleius’ repeated focus on different emotions (entertainment, seduction, wonder and curiosity) invites readers to identify with the characters who experience them and to be immersed in the storyworld.Footnote 44 This argument is reinforced by the mention of seduction and the possible association between the voice of the speaker in the prologue and that of the Sirens, since, as recently argued by Grethlein,Footnote 45 the Sirens from Homer to Heliodorus have been used to embody the immersive quality of literature.
Finally, as I have shown above, an immersive reading of the Metamorphoses as a whole is strongly encouraged by intratextual echoes of the prologue. On first glance, since these echoes direct the readers’ attention back to an earlier passage of the novel rather than keep their focus on plot development, they may seem to prevent the readers from immersing themselves in the story. On a closer analysis, however, this phenomenon does not pose an objection to my immersive reading but rather reinforces it. As is argued by Grethlein in his study of Heliodorus’ Aethiopica, ‘our response to narrative in various media oscillates between reflection and immersion’,Footnote 46 and ‘some passages simultaneously highlight the narratorial mediation and enhance the absorption of the reader’.Footnote 47 For example, there is a famous passage of Heliodorus’ novel in which the prophet Calasiris is narrating the foot-race which took place in Delphi (4.3.2–4.3.4), and the Athenian Cnemon interrupts him by saying: ‘Even now I fear for Theagenes and beg you to make haste and tell me whether he was proclaimed victor’ (4.3.4). While Cnemon's request interrupts the readers’ immersion in Calasiris’ story and flags the narrative reflection, it also retards the story. This postponement, especially Cnemon's words ‘to make haste and tell me’, heightens suspense and compels the readers to become more deeply immersed into the plot.Footnote 48
Following Grethlein's approach, I treat all echoes of the prologue throughout the Metamorphoses, especially in C&P, as moments of reflection that deepen the readers’ immersion in specific sections of the text.
PART 2: MULTIPLE RE-ENACTMENTS OF THE PROLOGUE'S CONTRACT WITHIN THE ECPHRASIS OF CUPID'S PALACE
Interpreters of C&P have traditionally identified only two specific echoes of the prologue. The first is to be found in the old narrator's comment: sed ego te narrationibus lepidis anilibusque fabulis protinus auocabo (‘Come, I shall straightaway distract you with sweet fairy-tales and old women's stories’, 4.27.8; my transl.). In this sentence, both ego te … lepidis and auocabo recall the prologue's first sentence.Footnote 49 Scholars have contended that this sentence affects the internal audience of the story, namely poor Charite kidnapped by bandits,Footnote 50 but its impact on the external audience is difficult to decipher. The second echo is found at the end of C&P, when we hear about the birth of Psyche's daughter ‘Pleasure’ (Voluptas, 6.24.4). As I argued earlier, pleasure is an intensified version of entertainment which is a key feature of the prologue.Footnote 51
This limited number of echoes of the prologue is an additional reason why, as I mentioned in the Introduction, scholars do not extend to C&P the immersive reading characteristic of other sections of the Metamorphoses.
Very recently, however, Benson has challenged scholarly consensus by showing that ‘the narratrix uses key terms from the novel's prologue throughout the tale’Footnote 52 and by suggesting an analogy between the prologue's disembodied voice and the voice that speaks to Psyche in the palace at 5.2.3.Footnote 53 Benson's list of correspondences between the prologue and C&P is helpful and correct,Footnote 54 but, as noted by Soldo, his interpretation of these connections is not satisfactory.Footnote 55 In what follows, I will expand on Benson's approach, and argue that the scene in Cupid's palace includes multiple re-enactments of the prologue's contract:
a) for a first-time reader of the story, the palace represents certain general features of Apuleius’ novel, and Psyche represents a reader who fulfils the contract of the prologue;
b) the voice of the servants’ leader echoes that of the prologue-speaker;
c) the chorus singing at Psyche's banquet also echoes the prologue-speaker's voice;
d) a few chapters later, Psyche uses her voice to imitate that of the prologue-speaker and to emphasize its seductive power.
Overall, these multiple re-enactments of the prologue allow for readerly reflection and show that the prologue's contract extends to C&P, as I will explain in detail in what follows.
a) Psyche as a reader who fulfils the prologue's contract
At the beginning of Book 5, as soon as Psyche reaches Cupid's palace, the text focusses on her exploration of the divine dwelling, which lies at the core of the well-studied ecphrasis of Cupid's palace.Footnote 56 Following van Mal-Maeder's suggestion,Footnote 57 in the palace there are multiple references to general features of Apuleius’ novel that a reader is able to recognize straightaway. From its very beginning, this ecphrasis makes mention of the divine artistry of the palace (5.1.2):
medio luci meditullio … domus regia est aedificata non humanis manibus sed diuinis artibus.
At the very centre of the grove … is a royal house, constructed not by human hands but by divine skills.
The palace's divine construction points to the importance of gods and the supernatural within the Metamorphoses, which is visible in the use of Diana and Venus as counterparts to Pamphile (2.4.3 and 2.5.3)Footnote 58 and Photis (3.22.5), and in the importance of witchcraft throughout the text.Footnote 59
In addition, Cupid's palace includes distinctive wall decorations (5.1.3 and 5.1.4; my transl.):
parietes omnes … conteguntur bestiis et id genus pecudibus
all the walls … are covered with beasts and animals of that kind
mirus prorsum {magnae artis} homo, immo semideus uel certe deus, qui magnae artis suptilitate tantum efferauit argentum.
It was indeed a wonderful man, no, rather a demigod or even a god, who with the refinement of great art had turned into wild animals so much silver.
bestiis, pecudibus and efferauit are echoes of the monster mentioned in the oracle (4.33.1–2) which lies at the origin of Psyche's visit to this palace;Footnote 60 moreover, these echoes stand as possible reflections of Lucius’ transformation into an ass, which is of course a key motif of the Metamorphoses.
The same ecphrasis includes a reference to mosaics made up of precious stones: in the sentence pauimenta ipsa … in uaria picturae genera discriminantur (‘the very floors … are divided up into different sorts of pictures’, 5.1.5; my transl.), the phrase uaria genera summarizes the status of the Metamorphoses as a combination of different genres, such as the novel, Milesian tales, epic, drama and Hellenistic poetry.Footnote 61 This reading is reinforced by the echo in uaria genera of uarias fabulas (‘various tales’, 1.1.1) from the prologue.
Finally, at the beginning of the ecphrasis, the palace is said to be located in a special setting (5.1.2):
uidet lucum proceris et uastis arboribus consitum, uidet fontem uitreo latice perlucidum.
She sees a grove thickly planted with huge, tall trees, she sees a glistening spring of crystal-clear water.
The location of Cupid's palace is characterized here as a locus amoenus because it includes soft wind, fresh grass, high trees for shade, and a stream of clear water; later the palace is similarly defined as a ‘delightful residence’ (amoenum diuersorium, 5.1.3). By definition any locus amoenus (‘pleasant place’) is characterized by evasion and pleasure.Footnote 62 Within this tradition, the presentation of Cupid's palace as a locus amoenus fits well into the Metamorphoses when experienced by the readers for the first time, as it reflects the entertaining function that is mentioned programmatically in the prologue.
In sum, the ecphrasis of Cupid's palace reminds the readers of some of the main features of the Metamorphoses, including its key themes, generic complexity and entertaining nature. In light of this analogy between Cupid's palace and the Metamorphoses, the reader could then view Psyche's reaction to her visit to the palace as the first re-enactment of the prologue's contract in C&P (5.2.1–2):
inuitata Psyche talium locorum oblectatione propius accessit et paulo fidentior intra limen sese facit. mox prolectante studio pulcherrimae uisionis rimatur singula, et altrinsecus aedium horrea sublimi fabrica perfecta magnisque congesta gazis. nec est quicquam quod ibi non est. sed praeter ceteram tantarum diuitiarum admirationem hoc erat praecipue mirificum, quod nullo uinculo, nullo claustro, nullo custode totius orbis thensaurus ille muniebatur. haec ei summa cum uoluptate uisenti …
Psyche, attracted by the enticement of such surroundings, came closer and as she gained a little more confidence, crosses the threshold; soon, seduced by her eagerness for the beautiful spectacle she examines all the details and on the other side of the palace she discovers storehouses built with lofty craftsmanship crammed with vast treasures. Nothing exists which is not there. But beyond the rest of her admiration at such enormous wealth, what was especially amazing was that this treasure-house of the entire world was protected by not a single chain, by no lock and by no guard. As she looked at all this with the greatest pleasure …
In her visit to the palace, Psyche's attitude matches the reaction prescribed by the contract introduced in the prologue. In this way, she is presented as a model for readers to follow. First, Psyche experiences seduction, since she is ‘attracted by the enticement of such surroundings’ (inuitata talium locorum oblectatione, 5.2.1) and ‘seduced by her eagerness for the beautiful spectacle’ (prolectante studio pulcherrimae uisionis, 5.2.1). Second, Psyche looks with curiosity, since ‘she examines all the details’ (rimatur singula, 5.2.1) of the palace. Then, she experiences wonder, as suggested by the phrase ‘beyond the rest of her admiration at such enormous wealth’ (praeter ceteram tantarum diuitiarum admirationem, 5.2.2). In addition, she finds it especially ‘amazing’ (mirificum, 5.2.2) that nobody is standing guard over this treasure, and she also finds pleasure, since ‘she was looking at all this with the greatest pleasure’ (ei summa cum uoluptate uisenti, 5.2.3).Footnote 63
In view of this description, Psyche's visit to Cupid's palace, a key episode near the beginning of C&P, offers a profound moment of reflection for readers. Not only do we meet a character (Psyche) who experiences the emotions which are part of the prologue's contract, but the object triggering these emotions, the palace, can be understood to stand for the Metamorphoses as a whole. As a result, this passage strongly reminds the readers of the prologue's contract, and invites them to fulfil it as they read C&P.
Support for this reading also comes from the close relationship between this narration of Psyche's visit and Lucius’ response to the ecphrasis of Byrrhena's house in Book 2, another passage which, as I argued earlier, strongly recalls the prologue's contract. More specifically, the mention of Psyche's curiosity (rimatur) and pleasure in Book 5 recalls Lucius’ curiosity (rimabundus) and delight in what he saw there (2.5.1).Footnote 64
b) The disembodied voice of the servants’ leader as an echo of the prologue-speaker
While Psyche is looking at the palace, the following servants appear (5.2.3–3.1):
haec ei summa cum uoluptate uisenti offert sese uox quaedam corporis sui nuda, et ‘quid’, inquit ‘domina, tantis obstupescis opibus? tua sunt haec omnia. prohinc cubiculo te refer, et lectulo lassitudinem refoue, et ex arbitrio lauacrum pete. nos, quarum uoces accipis, tuae famulae sedulo tibi praeministrabimus, nec corporis curatae tibi regales epulae morabuntur.’ sensit Psyche diuinae prouidentiae beatitudinem, monitusque uocis informis audiens et prius somno et mox lauacro fatigationem sui diluit;
As she looked at all this with the greatest pleasure, a sort of disembodied voice came to her and said: ‘Why, mistress, are you so astounded at this great wealth? All of it is yours. So retire to your bedroom, soothe your weariness with your bed and take a bath as you please. We whose voices you hear are your servants who will diligently wait on you, and when your body is refreshed a royal banquet for you will be swift to come.’ Psyche felt the blessedness of divine providence and, obeying the instructions of the shapeless voice, she dispelled her weariness first with sleep and then with a bath.
In this passage, the voice of the servants’ leader echoes the disembodied voice of the prologue-speaker in both its form and its message. First, after her fulfilment of the prologue's contract, Psyche (as the character who represents the reader) hears a voice that is deprived of its body, as we read in the phrases ‘a sort of disembodied voice’ (uox quaedam corporis sui nuda, 5.2.3) and ‘shapeless voice’ (uocis informis, 5.3.1). Second, this voice highlights Psyche's experience of two features of the prologue, namely wonder (obstupescis ‘are you astounded’, 5.2.3) and relief (refoue ‘soothe’, 5.2.3); the latter is an echo of the seduction mentioned in the prologue. Finally, the text further stresses that the servants’ voice is disembodied, like the speaker of the prologue: nec quemquam tamen illa uidere poterat, sed uerba tantum audiebat excidentia et solas uoces famulas habebat ‘Yet she could see no one, but merely heard words coming out and only the voices she had as her servants’, 5.3.4.
c) The chorus singing at Psyche's banquet as a further echo of the prologue-speaker
After her rest Psyche is offered the promised banquet and, immediately afterwards, she hears new disembodied voices, including a chorus which is described in two different sections of the text. The first description comes at the end of the ecphrasis of Cupid's palace (5.3.5; my transl.):
post opimas dapes quidam introcessit et cantauit inuisus, et alius citharam pulsauit, quae uidebatur nec ipsa. tunc modulatae multitudinis conferta uox aures eius affertur, ut, quamuis hominum nemo pareret, chorus tamen esse pateret.
After the sumptuous dinner someone came in and sang, unseen, and someone else played a cithara, which was invisible too. Then the concerted voice of a melodious crowd comes to her ears, so that, though none of the men appeared, yet there was obviously a choir.
In this passage, the choir seems to represent a further echo of the prologue's voice. To begin with, here as in the prologue a voice with an invisible body reaches the ears of Psyche, whom we know already to represent the reader. In addition, the same chorus is thus described in chapter 15 (5.15.2):
quae cuncta nullo praesente dulcissimis modulis animos audientium remulcebant.
All these things, although no one was there, were caressing with the sweetest tunes the listeners’ spirits.
This combination of remulcebant with animos audientium echoes the prologue's phrase aures permulceam.Footnote 65 Moreover, dulcissimis modulis thematically recalls the prologue's lepido susurro and its promise of sweet entertainment. Hence, the chorus in Cupid's palace indeed echoes the prologue's voice with a focus on the soothing effects wrought on the reader.
I also add a speculative piece of evidence to this demonstration. I would like to adopt Oudendorp's conjectureFootnote 66 and offer a new textual reading of the first description of the chorus, in which I replace conferta with conserta (5.3.5; my transl.):
tunc modulatae multitudinis conserta uox aures eius affertur.
Then the joined voice of a melodious crowd comes to her ears.
In my view, conserta works better than conferta in this sentence because of its agreement with uox: in its usage both in the Metamorphoses and in Latin literature as a whole,Footnote 67 confercio (‘to pack closely together’)Footnote 68 is used only literally (cf. 4.18.6, 5.14.3, 8.16.2, 8.16.7, 8.29.6, 9.37.1 and 10.7.7, with the only exception of 9.11.6), whereas consero (‘to fasten together’)Footnote 69 encompasses the figurative meaning of ‘compose’,Footnote 70 which is attested in both the prologue to the Metamorphoses (uarias fabulas conseram) and elsewhere in Latin literature.Footnote 71 In this new suggested rendering of the above phrase, conserta is a pointed allusion to the prologue's first verb conseram.
d) Psyche's imitation of the prologue-speaker's seductive voice
After her first encounters with Cupid, Psyche persuades her reluctant husband to let her sisters enter his house (5.6.9–10):
et imprimens oscula suasoria et ingerens uerba mulcentia et inserens membra cogentia haec etiam blanditiis astruit: ‘mi mellite, mi marite, tuae Psychae dulcis anima’. ui ac potestate uenerii susurrus inuitus succubuit maritus et cuncta se facturum spopondit, …
And pressing persuasive kisses on him, and plying him with soothing words, and entwining him with her compelling limbs, she added to her caresses words like ‘my honey-sweet, my husband, your Psyche's sweet soul.’ By the force and power of these amorous whispers her husband reluctantly succumbed, and he pledged that he would do everything …
In light of the re-enactment of the prologue at the beginning of Book 5, the phrase ingerens uerba mulcentia, with the verbal stem mulc- (mulceo), helps to draw a parallel between Psyche's seduction and the seductiveness of the prologue's voice. The phrase ui ac potestate uenerii susurrus reinforces this interpretation, since in the first five books of the Metamorphoses susurrus occurs only in the phrase lepido susurro of the prologue and in the word susurramen at 1.3.1.Footnote 72 As a result, the readers of C&P, when approaching this section of the story set in the palace, might see in Psyche's rhetoric a re-enactment of the sweet and seductive voice of the prologue-speaker. This instance completes the dense web of echoes of the prologue which characterizes this section of C&P.
As I argued at the end of Part 1, throughout the Metamorphoses the recurrent allusion to the readerly contract established in the prologue invites readers to immerse themselves in several sections of the novel. My analysis of Psyche's visit to Cupid's palace shows that, contrary to traditional scholarly belief, C&P is no exception to this general pattern, since it contains many echoes of the prologue's contract and emphasizes even more strongly Psyche's fulfilment of it. In the final section of this paper, I will show how key episodes of C&P meet the expectation from the prologue's echoes by triggering the readers’ immersion in the narrative world in a way that lends support to a first-time reading.
PART 3: IMMERSION IN THE NARRATIVE OF C&P, WITH A FOCUS ON PSYCHE'S EXPERIENCE OF CUPID
This section argues that relevant parts of C&P invite readers to participate in Psyche's experience of Cupid. Before getting into the details, some theoretical background first needs to be discussed. While in the Introduction I offered a definition of immersion, here I list Allan's inventory of immersive elements which includes the following components:Footnote 73
(I) Verisimilitude: The text evokes a lifelike (‘vivid’) mental representation of persons, objects, actions and their setting. A lifelike representation:
(a) focusses on concrete, physical objects;
(b) provides graphic sensory details;
(c) provides detailed spatial information;
(d) progresses at a relatively slow pace (scene narration: narration time approximates narrated time);
(e) advances in chronological order (no flashbacks/flashforwards) …
(II) Perspective: The text … takes the perspective of (is focalized by) a character with whom the addressee may identify and feel empathy. Specific linguistic indications of this perspective shift are:
(a) proximal (‘here’ and ‘now’) deixis (for example historic present);
(b) imperfect aspect (indicating an ‘internal viewpoint’);
(c) subjective-evaluative vocabulary which can be ascribed to a character.
(III) ‘Transparency’ of the Text: The text directs the addressee's attention to the storyworld, that is, it defocusses from the text itself as a medium and from the narrator as a mediating voice … More specifically, we will find:
(a) no metanarrative elements (for example narrator comments);
(b) direct or free indirect discourse;
(c) no elements drawing attention to the conventionality of the textual (literary) genre.
(IV) Interest and Emotional Involvement: The theme of the text is of strong interest to the addressee. The text contains elements eliciting the addressee's emotional response … The text is crucial to the main storyline and creates suspense.
(V) Principle of Minimal Departure: The storyworld should not (or only minimally) depart from the ‘real world’ as we know it … Departures may be tolerated if they can be explained by generic conventions.
I will now use this inventory to show how at least three relevant scenes of C&P are conducive to the readers’ immersion. Two features mentioned by Allan, ‘Transparency of the Text’ and ‘Principle of Minimal Departure’, hold true for all the passages that I am going to discuss, which are characterized by an absence of metanarrative elements and the construction of a storyworld that departs from the ‘real world’ only with regard to Cupid. This departure, though apparent, can be tolerated in light of the epic undertones that characterize C&P from its beginning.Footnote 74 The three remaining features of Allan's list are present in more specific ways.
The first scene which I consider to be immersive is one of the peaks of the story, namely Psyche's discovery of her husband's identity. In chapter 33 of Book 4, Apollo prophesies that Psyche will marry ‘a savage and wild, viperous monster’ (saeuum atque ferum uipereumque malum, 4.33.1),Footnote 75 and in chapter 22 of Book 5 this monster's identity is finally revealed to her. This chapter, which narrates Cupid's epiphany, starts with Psyche's entrance into her husband's room with a dagger and lamp, since she wants to obey her sisters’ orders to kill him. Precisely at this moment, the narrative rhythm slows down, and Psyche's relationship with Cupid is narrated mostly through a ‘scene’ narrative which advances in chronological order. This thereby displays Allan's category of ‘Verisimilitude’. In addition, the narrative highlights Psyche's ‘Perspective’, as it is focalized by her, and the historical anaphoric present (uidet) stresses both her sight and her proximity to the god (5.22.1):
sed cum primum luminis oblatione tori secreta claruerunt, uidet omnium ferarum mitissimam dulcissimamque bestiam …
But as soon as the mysteries of the bed are revealed by the presentation of the lamp, she sees of all wild beasts the meekest and sweetest animal …
The final sentence also steers the readers’ ‘Interest and Emotional Involvement’, in Allan's terms, since the sisters’ previous dialogue with Psyche has created suspense about the latter's encounter with the husband, and this suspense is now released by Psyche's discovery of his identity. Moreover, ‘the oxymoronic juxtapositions’,Footnote 76 with their combination of wild beasts with the sweetest animal, vividly express Psyche's astonishment at her discovery, and further highlight her ‘Perspective’.
Finally, this same category is further emphasized when, immediately after, the readers are given access to Psyche's emotions and thoughts (5.22.3–4):
at uero Psyche tanto aspectu deterrita et impos animi, marcido pallore defecta tremensque desedit in imos poplites et ferrum quaerit abscondere, sed in suo pectore; quod profecto fecisset, nisi ferrum timore tanti flagitii manibus temerariis delapsum euolasset. iamque lassa, salute defecta, dum saepius diuini uultus intuetur pulchritudinem, recreatur animi.
But Psyche, terrified by the overwhelming sight, loses her self-control and, weakened and pale, she almost faints; trembling she sinks deep down onto the backs of her knees and tries to hide the weapon—but to hide it in her own breast; she would no doubt have done so, had not the weapon itself, out of fear for such an enormous crime, slipped away and escaped from her rash hands. And now, weary and bereft of a means of salvation, while she again and again contemplates the beauty of the divine appearance, she regains her inner strength.
In this passage, deterrita (‘terrified’), marcido pallore defecta (‘weakened and pale’) and tremens (‘trembling’) all stress Psyche's fear at the god's appearance, which leads her to attempt suicide. Moreover, the phrase quod profecto fecisset (‘she would no doubt have done so’) is a counterfactual clause, which further enhances the readers’ immersion in the narrative, since, as argued by Grethlein and Huitink, ‘counterfactuals alert the reader to the openness of the past for various developments and thereby restore presence to the action’.Footnote 77 Finally, in the last sentence, the mention of Psyche's lengthy contemplation encourages the readers to identify with her curiosity.
In light of this, I conclude that, as soon as Psyche separates herself from her sisters and goes to see Cupid, the narrative of her encounter with the god displays a highly immersive character. As a result, readers are invited to identify with Psyche and experience her emotional turmoil, which includes two features of the prologue's contract, namely wonder and curiosity.
This identification becomes even more compelling when, at the end of this epiphanic scene, Psyche notices Cupid's weapons lying at the foot of the bed (5.22.7). The narration of her handling of these weapons is highly immersive (5.23.1–2):
quae dum insatiabili animo Psyche, satis et curiosa, rimatur atque pertrectat et mariti sui miratur arma, depromit unam de pharetra sagittam et puncto pollicis extremam aciem periclitabunda trementis etiam nunc articuli nisu fortiore pupugit altius, ut per summam cutem rorauerint paruulae sanguinis rosei guttae.
While Psyche with insatiable spirit, and being very curious, scrutinizes and handles these, and marvels at the weapons of her husband, she takes one arrow from the quiver, testing the sharpness of its point, and with a strongish push of her hand, which was still trembling, she pricked too deep, so that tiny little drops of rose-red blood moistened the surface of her skin.
This passage displays Allan's category of ‘Perspective’, since it is focalized by Psyche, who describes her multisensorial perception of the weapons, first through sight (rimatur and pertrectat), and then, from depromit onwards, through the movement of her hand. The changes in the surface of her skin are also described in detail.Footnote 78 In addition, we are given access to Psyche's feelings and emotions, ranging from her curiosity (insatiabili animo and satis et curiosa) to her wonder (miratur) and fear (articuli trementis). Furthermore, the time that is taken to read this passage is commensurate with the realistic duration of Psyche's actions (scene narrative, ‘Verisimilitude’), and the mention of blood drops at the end of the passage arouses suspense about what may happen to her. All these elements convey the immersive nature of the narrative, whereby readers participate in Psyche's experience and especially in her curiosity and wonder, whose mutual connection is emphasized by the anagram rimatur … miratur.Footnote 79
Finally, other sections of C&P display an immersive quality, even if they do not contain specific references to the prologue's emotions, thereby highlighting the wide appeal of this immersive reading while still confirming its focus on Psyche's relationship to Cupid. For example, as soon as the latter decides to fly off and leave the former, we read (5.24.1–3):
at Psyche statim resurgentis eius crure dextero manibus ambabus adrepto sublimis euectionis adpendix miseranda et per nubilas plagas penduli comitatus extrema consequia tandem fessa delabitur solo. nec deus amator humi iacentem deserens inuolauit proximam cupressum deque eius alto cacumine sic eam grauiter commotus adfatur: ‘ego quidem, simplicissima Psyche, parentis meae Veneris praeceptorum immemor, …’
But Psyche as soon as he soared up seized his right leg with both hands, and formed a pitiable appendage to his aerial elevation and the very tip of the tail of the escort which was floating through the cloudy regions; at last she fell exhausted down to earth. But the god who loved her did not desert her as she was lying on the earth; he flew to a nearby cypress and from its lofty crest, deeply moved, addressed her thus: ‘I, indeed, my too trusting Psyche, disregarded my mother Venus’ instructions …’
This passage has been analysed often because, as is summarized in GCA 2004, it ‘no doubt refers to Plato's Phaedrus 248c, where Socrates explains the fate of those souls who cannot follow in the train of a god and fall to earth’.Footnote 80 While Penwill, for example, has used this passage to offer his second-time reading of C&P,Footnote 81 it remains possible to highlight its immersive quality. The first-time readers, before studying the further implications of this Platonic reference, are drawn into the storyworld by the ‘Verisimilitude’ of the narrative. The ‘scene’ and the chronological narrative are combined here with a focus on the characters’ motions and spatial details. While Cupid rises and then positions himself on the summit of a nearby cypress (resurgentis and inuolauit proximam cupressum … alto cacumine), Psyche first tries to seize the god's right leg and afterwards sinks to the ground (crure dextero … adrepto and delabitur solo). In addition, Cupid's deeply emotional speech to Psyche heightens the ‘Interest and Emotional Involvement’ of this passage. Overall, this narrative leads to readerly immersion, and allows the readers to experience the height of Psyche's drama in the very moment in which she is abandoned by Cupid.
In light of my analysis of these three passages, the reflection set within Cupid's palace matches the immersive quality of various sections of the narrative of C&P, all of which narrate aspects of Psyche's relationship with Cupid, mostly through an epiphanic discourse. Following the multiple re-enactments of the prologue at the beginning of Book 5, readers are invited to immerse themselves in the text of C&P so that they may participate in Psyche's experience of her divine husband.
CONCLUSION
As I summarized in the Introduction, most scholars of the Metamorphoses have offered second-time readings of this novel, which are either comic or seriocomic and are concerned with the novel as a whole; fewer scholars have offered first-time immersive interpretations which cover most of the novel with the exception of C&P. This paper offers a new interpretation which extends this first-time reading to C&P. An immersive reading of this section of the novel is suggested by multiple re-enactments of the prologue in the text itself (Part 2) and leads to a new response to this story, one which is focussed on Psyche's experience of her divine husband (Part 3).
In the limited space of this conclusion, I will show two different ways in which this new reading of C&P may be relevant to Apuleian scholarship. To begin with, I see this first-time reading of C&P not as an alternative but as a possible counterpart to the second-time interpretation of the same story, which focusses on Lucius’ and Psyche's parallel patterns of downfall followed by divine salvation. When the second-time readers of the Metamorphoses who are inclined to offer a serious or seriocomic reading of the text speak about Psyche's emotions, they usually highlight the curiosity that got her into trouble,Footnote 82 focussing on Mithras’ moral criticism of Lucius’ curiosity in Book 11 (11.15.1–4):Footnote 83
sed lubrico uirentis aetatulae ad seruiles delapsus uoluptates, curiositatis inprosperae sinistrum praemium reportasti.
but on the slippery path of your green youth you plunged into slavish pleasures and gained the grim reward of your unlucky curiosity.
On the contrary, my first-time immersive reading of C&P highlights a variety of emotions felt by Psyche that seem not to carry negative connotations, and that could enrich the second-time reading of the novel.
This possibility is especially suggested by the ecphrasis of Cupid's palace which lies at the core of this article. Since Murgatroyd noted over twenty years ago that ‘this ekphrasis has attracted little scholarly attention so far’,Footnote 84 more studies of this passage have appeared (see Part 2). Surprisingly, however, the second-time readings of C&P, which highlight the parallel between Psyche's and Lucius’ lives, still omit Psyche's visit to Cupid's palace.Footnote 85 In my view, the reason for this omission is that, as I argued in Part 2, Psyche in Cupid's palace experiences seduction, wonder, curiosity and pleasure, but none of these emotions carries any immoral or negative connotations. Psyche's curiosity starts to be immoral only in chapter 6 of Book 5, when Cupid warns Psyche to resist her sisters’ request and to avoid using her ‘sacrilegious curiosity’ (sacrilega curiositate, 5.6.6) to try to see his face.Footnote 86 Hence, I think that second-time readers of Apuleius have likely decided not to focus on Psyche's visit to the palace because her emotional experience does not fit within Mithras’ harsh assessments of Lucius’ emotions. However, by considering more precisely those emotions that are highlighted by the immersive reading, the second-time reading of the Metamorphoses would gain a new level of complexity, since it would show that some emotions may contribute to Psyche's (and possibly Lucius’) growth and not to their decadence.
Second, my immersive reading of C&P may also contribute more broadly to the second-time serious and seriocomic readings of the novel through my focus on Cupid's epiphany and Psyche's encounter with this god. In Apuleian studies, scholars have expressed a strong interest in the ecphrastic quality of the scenes depicting encounters with gods, such as those involving Lucius with Diana (2.4), Photis (2.16 and 2.17) and Isis (11.3–4),Footnote 87 as well as Psyche's discovery of Cupid (5.22).Footnote 88 Overall, the scholarly interest in these scenes is mostly rhetorical and, as a result, the characters’ encounters with the gods do not lie at the core of the existing seriocomic readings of the text. In 2007, however, Elsner used the brief epilogue of his monograph to suggest that Apuleius uses ecphrases to construct the gaze of ‘intense personal revelation’, which can be either ‘sexual’ as with Photis, or ‘sacred’ as with Isis, or both ‘sexual’ and ‘sacred’, as happens with Psyche in Cupid's epiphany.Footnote 89 My analysis of C&P, with its focus on Psyche's encounter with Cupid, invites scholars to reassess these key encounters with the gods within the novel, since they may play an additional role in the Metamorphoses by arousing different emotions in the readers and by thus affecting their serious or seriocomic approach to Lucius’ and Psyche's lives. In this respect, Psyche's immersion in Cupid's epiphany seems to introduce a wider variety of emotions than the sensual pleasure provided by Lucius’ encounter with Photis.Footnote 90
Finally, thanks to this new reading of C&P, which fills a gap within Apuleian studies, the immersive and first-time reading can now be said to apply to most sections of the Metamorphoses. I therefore hope that future interpreters of this novel will offer a comprehensive immersive reading of this novel. Perhaps surprisingly, this emphasis on immersion and the readers’ experience is not altogether new, as it was part of the first application of the reader-response theory to the Metamorphoses in Kenny's 1974 article: ‘Apuleius employs a dramatic rather than a narrative method of presentation’, which ‘has to do with the creation of an illusion of immediacy, of being present at an event rather than receiving a second-hand account of it’.Footnote 91 In his brief but helpful analysis, Kenny articulates the immediate experience of any reader of the Metamorphoses, an experience that in recent decades has been downplayed by the poststructuralist interest in a more intellectual and detached response to this text.
Following the emerging experiential turn within Classics,Footnote 92 this article aims to recover the most immediate level of the readers’ response to the Metamorphoses using the cognitive tool of immersion, while, at the same time, encouraging all scholars to use the first-time reading of the Metamorphoses to reassess the main tenets of the second-time readings of this fascinating novel.
