Museo Locality

The most comprehensive information on the Epiclassic settlement was obtained from investigations in the Museo locality (Figure 1g), involving a program of exploratory excavations at the site of the construction of the Museo Jorge Acosta. Despite the limited exposure, exploratory excavation encountered portions of Epiclassic period structures containing rooms, corridors, and patios quite similar in form to residential compounds characteristic of the early Postclassic Tollan phase. Associated features included altars, drainage systems, and masonry columns likewise characteristic of Tollan phase residential architecture (Paredes Reference Paredes1998b). These Epiclassic structures, the first ever exposed at Tula, utilized many of the same architectural features, including stucco-covered floors and walls of both adobe and stone and the use of the distinctive tabular stone facing, commonly associated with Tollan phase civic and ceremonial structures at Tula Grande and elsewhere.

A large number of burials associated with the Epiclassic occupation were encountered in excavation. Gómez Serafín et al. (Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:53–76) provide detailed information on 24 of the burials, including three (Entierros 13, 1, and 60) that contained two, three, and seven individuals, respectively. Most of the individuals in the multiple burials were secondary interments, as were eight of the single burials. Many contained ceramic vessels and/or other offerings, which in two cases included skulls and bones of other individuals that appear to have been accompanying grave goods rather than additional interments.

One of the most notable finds was the discovery of seven burials involving one or more canids. Most of these had been placed in their own pits, distinct from those of the human burials, but were often situated alongside the latter. The canid remains included some 27 individuals, representing three distinct races (Valadez et al. Reference Valadez, Paredes and Gómez1999), including the famous Xoloizcuintli native to West Mexico. Two other canid burials were encountered in Epiclassic contexts in the Cerro Malinche and Tunel Falso localities (Figures 1a and 1f), and another in recent excavations at Tula Chico (Cobean et al. Reference Cobean, Healan and Suárez2021).

Another find of considerable interest was a human burial with remains of three Psittaciformes, specifically two specimens of Ara militaris (macaw) and one of Amazonia finschi (parrot), which was encountered beneath a stucco floor (Valadez and Paredes Reference Valadez and Paredes1990). The three are only partial specimens, of which the most complete lacked the skull. Both are colorful species, native to western Mexico and Central America, and we assume they were valued for their plumage. A carved stone panel, bearing the likeness of a very similar avian, possibly a macaw, was encountered in excavations at Tula Chico (Cobean et al. Reference Cobean, Healan and Suárez2021:Figure 5g). Many of the burials had worked and unworked shell objects, including both Pacific and Gulf Coast species.

Interestingly, 13 of the Epiclassic period burials recovered during the Proyecto Tula ’80, including eight from the Museo locality and three from Cerro Malinche, exhibited auditory exostoses (Paredes Reference Paredes and Manzanilla2005a), an inner ear disorder commonly attributed to prolonged exposure to cold and water, although there may be other contributing factors (Godde Reference Godde2010). A recent study identified the disorder in 11 individuals in an osteological sample of 124 individuals from a Late Postclassic village along the shore of Lake Xochimilco in the Basin of Mexico (Medrano Enríquez Reference Medrano Enríquez2001). All but one of these 11 individuals were adult males, and the other, a subadult with masculine features, suggesting an association with a gender-specific activity. All of the 13 Tula individuals were adults, but included both males (n = 10) and females (n = 3) (Paredes et al. Reference Paredes, Flores and Valentín1988).

Two radiocarbon samples were recovered, one associated with one of the burials, and both produced dates with nearly identical age ranges, approximately a.d. 650–775 (Table 1:B, C).

Cerro Malinche Locality

Remains of Epiclassic period occupation were also encountered in excavations atop Cerro Malinche at the confluence of the Tula and Rosas rivers (Figure 1a). The investigations focused on three large mounds, designated I–III, excavation of which revealed that Mounds I and III were composite features composed of the remains of a series of superposed residential structures spanning the Terminal Corral, Early Tollan, and Late Tollan phases, as described below. In Mound III, remains of Corral phase structures were encountered in two exploratory excavations beneath the earliest (Terminal Corral phase) of the superposed structures. One structure contained a stucco floor and stone wall atop a low platform constructed over tepetate, the local caliche whose surface contained two trash-filled pits with Early Corral and Late Corral sherds. The other structure was likewise constructed over tepetate, which contained a multiple burial pit containing two adults and two children, plus several Coyotlatelco vessels.

Other excavations along the southern flank of Mound III encountered additional evidence of Epiclassic occupation, including a compacted earth surface and adobe wall associated with a burial likewise containing Coyotlatelco ceramics. Radiocarbon samples associated with the burial yielded two dates whose probability ranges fell mainly in the seventh and eighth centuries a.d. (Table 1:A, D).

Excavations conducted on Mound I at the east end of Cerro Malinche likewise encountered a series of superposed residential structures, beneath which limited exploratory excavation encountered a burial containing five individuals and a Coyotlatelco vessel, which was partially intruded into the stucco floor of an underlying structure left unexcavated. A nearby excavation encountered a burial of a single canid similar to those from the Museo locality.

In summary, despite the limited degree of exposure, both the Museo and the Cerro Malinche excavations produced evidence of Epiclassic period occupation, including the first exposure of Epiclassic domestic structures, which show continuity with residential architecture of the later Tollan phase. The presence of a Corral phase occupation atop Cerro Malinche suggests that Tula's Corral phase settlement was larger than previously thought. Where Mounds I and III are located offers a grand view of Tula Chico and the surrounding river valleys and would have been scenic as well as strategic. In fact, this is part of a larger pattern in the Epiclassic period of site location atop hills and elevated areas that includes La Mesa and neighboring sites at the eastern end of the Tula valley (Healan et al. Reference Healan, H. Cobean and T. Bowsher2021; Mastache et al. Reference Mastache, Cobean and Healan2002:60–77), as well as Tula Chico itself and Cerro Magoni, located immediately north of Cerro Malinche (Figure 1).

Cerro Malinche Locality

Excavations at Cerro Malinche also encountered remains associated with Terminal Corral and/or Early Tollan phase ceramics in four locations. As noted above, excavation revealed that Mound III consisted of a series of large, superposed residential structures of seemingly high status, the earliest of which (Figure 2) contained a radiocarbon sample whose age range fell mainly within around a.d. 770–900, thus spanning the Terminal Corral and Early Tollan phases (Table 1:E). The multiple burial from the Epiclassic period described above was situated directly beneath the impluvium of the interior patio in the northwest portion of this structure, suggesting settlement continuity between the inhabitants of the Terminal Corral residence and the previously buried individuals. Two radiocarbon dates were obtained for samples recovered from a partially exposed structure near the southeastern limits of the excavation, which yielded somewhat later dates, whose ranges fell principally between around a.d. 870 and 1020 (Table 1:I, J).

Figure 2.

Plans of structures encountered in various localities. Plans by Healan and Paredes Gudiño.

A similar situation was encountered in Mound I, where the earliest of a series of large, superposed structures of seemingly high status was associated with Mazapa ceramics characteristic of the Terminal Corral and Early Tollan phases (Table 3), and two radiocarbon samples yielded very similar dates, principally in the range a.d. 870–1020 (Table 1:G, H).

Exploratory excavations in an area east of Mound III encountered five burials with Terminal Corral complex ceramics (Table 3), near to which a partially exposed structure was encountered that contained a multiple burial with a radiocarbon sample from around a.d. 770–980 (Table 1:F).

Exploratory excavation east of Mound I encountered a structure of basalt boulders arranged into a nearly complete circle, some 2.2 meters in diameter, which contained four secondary burials, three of which were partial and could have been offerings. The complete individual was associated with several grave goods, including a tripodal bowl with negative decoration of geometric designs and a transverse cut shell motif, a Mazapa vessel, a whole shell, and a fragment of alabaster. The complete individual exhibited auditory exostoses.

The identification of a Terminal Corral phase occupation at Cerro Malinche provides support for the veracity of this transitional phase that had previously been encountered in only a few contexts at Tula (Healan Reference Healan2012:60). The transitional character of its ceramic assemblage is seen in other aspects of material culture, including the construction of grand residences exhibiting the same architectural features that become common in subsequent phases.

Notably, some of the ceramics recovered from the Terminal Corral phase burials comprise a distinct red on buff subcomplex characterized by very large geometric motifs, including the xicalcoliuhui or stepped fret motif (Figure 3a; Paredes Reference Paredes1998b, Reference Paredes and Barba2000, Reference Paredes and Manzanilla2005a). Very similar vessels have been found in the Sayula region of Jalisco, and also in the Classic period Ramon ceramic complex (Figure 3b) of the eastern Bajío (Hernández Reference Hernández2001). This subcomplex has so far only been found at Cerro Malinche, in Terminal Corral phase contexts.

Figure 3.

Examples of bowls with “large format” designs. (a) Terminal Corral phase, Cerro Malinche; (b) Ramón complex, eastern Bajío. Photographs by Healan and Paredes Gudiño.

Cerro Malinche Locality

It was noted above that excavations of both Mounds I and III encountered a superposed series of large residential structures of seemingly high status, the earliest dating to the Terminal Corral phase and continuing into the succeeding Tollan phase. In both mounds, four distinct structures were identified, each a whole new undertaking rather than renovation of the existing structure. The best preserved structures exhibited numerous features in common, including substructure platforms faced with worked stone slabs, a gallery or portico along the front, and interior walls and floors faced with stucco, all of which are also characteristic features of their Terminal Corral phase predecessors, like that seen in Figure 2. Some common features of monumental architecture at Tula Grande are also present, including wide adobe walls covered with painted or unpainted plaster, tlecuiles, or stone lined hearths, recessed into the floor, and drainage systems employing stone troughs and in some cases ceramic tubes like those encountered in other residential structures at Tula (Healan Reference Healan and Healan1989). Interior walls commonly had a sill running along the bottom, and some doorways contained the scars of framing posts. Some of the painted walls appear to have been murals. One wall bore traces of three vertical stripes of blue, red, and yellow, and in the same room a large, loose stucco fragment was found that bore representations of two human figures wearing head gear and wielding weaponry or other objects (Figure 4). Two structures contained small circular features of stone measuring c. 1 m in diameter whose interior was faced with stucco. Both were connected to one or two stone troughs whose interior surface was likewise covered with stucco (Paredes Reference Paredes1990:Foto 12a). They appear too small to have been temascales (sweat baths), but appear to have been designed to hold water.

Figure 4.

Fragment of a polychrome stucco mural depicting two individuals wearing head gear and brandishing objects (Paredes Reference Paredes1990:Figure 13).

Two burials of considerable interest were associated with these structures. In Mound 3, a burial of a young adult male was encountered that contained 59 grave goods, among them Huastec style ceramics and numerous projectile points. The historian Patrick Johannson (Reference Johannsson2012:67–84, 111) notes a long history of interaction between central Mexico and the Huasteca, and the Anales de Cuauhtitlan specifically mention arrow sacrifice of Huastec prisoners at Tollan.

In the uppermost structure in Mound I, excavation encountered postcranial remains of two ovines inside a large olla recessed into the floor and capped with a basalt boulder (Paredes and Valadez Reference Paredes and Valadez1988b:174, Figure 2). The remains were identified as female Bighorn Sheep (Ovis canadiensis) native to Baja California and other parts of northern Mexico. The remains included small beads of bone, alabaster, pink and white coral, mother of pearl, unidentified violet material, and green stone.

It is notable that throughout the Mound I excavations, remains of numerous animal species were recovered, suggesting the consumption and/or keeping of species both native and non‑native to the Tula region (Paredes and Valadez Reference Paredes and Valadez1988a, Reference Paredes and Valadez1988b; Paredes Reference Paredes1990; Valadez and Paredes Reference Valadez and Paredes1990).

In addition to utilitarian wares, ceramics from the Tollan phase occupation at Cerro Maliche included various imported polychromes, including cloisonne and a stucco‑covered polychrome bowl painted inside and out in blue, red, and yellow designs and outlined in black, now on display in the Sala Epiclasica at the Museo Nacional de Antropología, Mexico City. Limited exploratory excavations of a third mound (Mound II) exposed a small structure atop a pyramidal platform that may represent a barrio level temple similar to one encountered elsewhere in the city (Stocker and Healan Reference Stocker, Healan and Healan1989). Associated materials included several loose pieces of stone sculpture, including a representation of a squatting individual wearing a loincloth and long hair tied in the back. Two in‑the‑round sculptures of frogs were recovered, each initially painted red, covered with stucco, and then painted greenish blue (Figure 5b). In addition, three carved stone panels were recovered bearing images of what have been variously interpreted as bees (Paredes Reference Paredes1998a) and butterflies (Jimenez García Reference Jiménez García1998:321), although the body appears bee‑like in form (Figure 5a).

Figure 5.

Carved stone sculpture from Cerro Malinche. (a) Carved images believed to represent bees; (b) full round plaster-covered and painted representations of frogs. Photographs by Elizabeth Jiménez García.

Figure 6.

Carved stone panel from ash deposit beneath Structure 2-sub B, Museo locality, depicting an individual with a load and a zoomorphic staff, possibly Yacatecuhtli, god of merchants. Photograph by Bruce Love.

There seems little doubt that the Tollan phase occupation at Cerro Malinche represents a barrio of persons of extremely high status. Its location affords a commanding view of Tula Grande and the surrounding valley and would have been an attractive, strategic, and privileged location. In addition to the four from Terminal Corral contexts described above, six additional radiocarbon dates were obtained from excavations of Mound III for samples from contexts associated with Tollan complex ceramics that collectively span the Early and Late Tollan phases (Table 1:L, N, P, Q, R, and U).

Zapata II Locality

One of the most intriguing explorations of the Proyecto Tula ’80 took place in the Zapata II locality on the west bank of the Tula River, immediately southwest of Tula Grande (Figure 1b). Excavation exposed a linear arrangement of structures that followed the curve of the river, which formed part of what appears to be a civic-ceremonial complex (Figure 2) that included a temple, an altar, and two large buildings, each containing two or more interior rooms with flanking benches (Paredes Reference Paredes and Barba1998c). Although initially called “palaces,” neither building seems suited for a residential function, and they appear to have had a more public function. All of the structures had stucco-covered walls and floors, and exhibited decorative facades of tabular stone facing.

Associated remains included numerous carved stone tablets, some in situ, with extraordinary iconographic content. This includes two tablets on the face of the alfardas, or ramp-like structures, flanking a stairway, with images of reclining individuals from each of whose chests rises a tree-like plant bearing fruit or other objects (Figure 7). A strikingly similar representation of what appears to a prickly pear cactus (Opuntia sp.) emerging from the abdomen or groin of an individual appears in the Aztec-period Códice Azcatitlan (Reference Códice1949). Other tablets bore representations of an individual believed to be the deity the Aztecs called Yacatecuhtli, god of merchants, and eagles devouring bleeding hearts (Figure 8), the latter strikingly similar to the famous panels on Pyramid B, Tula Grande. Considering its monumental character and rich iconographic content, Zapata II was clearly a center of importance.

Figure 7.

(a) Carved stone panels flanking a stairway, Zapata II locality; photograph by Elizabeth Jiménez García. (b) Panels in situ; photograph by Carlos Henández Reyes.

Figure 8.

Carved stone panels from the Zapata II locality. (a) Individual with staff, possibly Yacatecuhli, god of merchants; (b) eagle devouring a bleeding heart. Photographs by Elizabeth Jiménez García.

La Nopalera and Vivero Localities

The La Nopalera locality was situated near the museum parking lot (Figure 1i), where excavations encountered remains of one or more residential structures. Unfortunately, no maps of these remains are available, but excavation notes indicate a configuration of rooms with stucco-covered floors and walls, arranged around a central patio with an impluvium (Paredes Reference Paredes1990:99–100), reminiscent of the high-status residences in the Malinche locality. A radiocarbon date obtained for an associated carbon sample was in the range a.d. 1020–1170 (Table 1:T).

The Vivero locality was a low mound situated southeast of La Nopalera (Figure 1j), where excavation exposed portions of three contiguous multi-room structures that appear to be residential compounds associated with Tollan complex ceramics (Figure 2). None of the three was sufficiently exposed to determine their overall size and configuration, but some portions exhibit a spaciousness and architectural quality like those seen in the high-status residences in the Malinche locality. Like the nearby Museo locality, there is evidence of a substantial reoccupation during the Aztec period Palacio phase, as described below.

Three radiocarbon dates were obtained from the Vivero locality excavations, one for a carbon sample associated with the Tollan phase occupation, with a probability range from the tenth well into the twelfth century a.d. (Table 1:M). The other two samples were associated with the Aztec period occupation and are presented below.

Museo Locality

Numerous Tollan phase structural remains were encountered in a series of discontinuous excavations conducted in three contiguous areas corresponding to the walkways and layout of the proposed museum buildings. Owing to the museum construction that was going on at the same time, the excavations were limited in scale but nevertheless exposed portions of three contiguous structural complexes, designated the North, East, and West complexes (Figure 2). All three appear to have been parts of house compounds, a common form of residential compound in Tula (Healan Reference Healan2012; Paredes Reference Paredes1990).

Although the most extensively exposed, the West complex was poorly preserved owing to its proximity to the surface. The extant remains are a portion of a residential compound, presumably a house compound, that included a central patio and altar (Figure 2a) and a multiroom structure on its north side. The latter includes what appear to be a number of individual single-room structures, but are more likely remnants of individual rooms within the larger building. Structural remains on the flanks of the patio probably represent structures on its east and west sides. Traces of stucco were encountered on the patio floor and in several of the rooms on the north side. The compound was reoccupied during the Palacio phase and became the site of sustained burial activity (Figure 2b), as described further below.

The East complex is an ill-defined entity whose principal feature is a large, nearly square building with four columns surrounding a centrally-located subfloor stone slab-lined receptacle, or tlecuil (Figure 2c), a configuration commonly seen in the open patio or atrium of high status residences and civic-ceremonial architecture in other parts of ancient Tula. The columns were constructed of stone with mud mortar and faced with the same small tabular stone facing typical of columns and pillars in other buildings at Tula, including those encountered in the Corral phase structures in the Museo locality that were described in the preceding section. Limited subfloor excavation encountered a drainage system like those encountered beneath other structures at Tula, consisting of a trough lined and capped with stone slabs. An unusual and complicating feature of the building are numerous insubstantial walls between the exterior walls and column bases that partition what was otherwise a single, spacious hall into eight or more smaller rooms. These enigmatic and crudely built features are so out of character with the other aspects of the building that we believe they were later modifications, possibly dating from the Aztec period given evidence of considerable Palacio phase activity elsewhere in the Museo locality. Unfortunately, no ceramic data are available for the East Complex that might determine this.

The remainder of the exposed portion of the East Complex is a series of ill-defined structures that include a partially-exposed rectangular platform accessed by steps on at least the north side (Figure 2d). The platform had been constructed over a smaller, nearly square platform (Figure 2e) faced with small tabular stone (Gómez Serafiín et al. Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:Foto 23, Figure 45), a common form and construction for structures interpreted as altars. Two secondary burials of children designated Burials 6 and 7 were encountered behind the stairs in the space between the two structures.

Immediately to the west, exploratory excavation exposed part of a small temple platform (Figure 2f) and a portion of a two-tiered stairway on its north side. Excavation of the main body exposed a series of walls of unknown context, possibly part of a superstructure or perhaps earlier stages of the platform itself. As described and depicted by Hernández et al. (Reference Hernández, Healan and Beekman2019:Figure 2), it appears similar to small temple platforms encountered in other excavations, including Cerro Malinche as described above, believed to represent barrio level religious structures.

The North Complex: Altar, Cist Burial, and Other Unusual Finds

Despite its extremely limited nature, excavation in the North Complex encountered a number of unusual finds that suggest its occupants were high status individuals, possibly artisans, with access to luxury items. The core of the complex is a central patio flanked by platforms on all four sides, giving it a “sunken” appearance. Portions of three structures, designated 1–3 in Figure 2, were encountered in excavations on the north, south and west sides of the patio, and are presumed to be portions of residential structures atop the flanking platforms. Unfortunately, these structures could receive only limited exploratory excavation due to ongoing construction activity.

The overall architectural quality of the central patio and its components suggests it was part of a house compound of relatively high status. Currently visible at the entrance to the Museo Jorge Acosta, the patio was accessed by well-constructed stairs on its east and west sides that connected to a surrounding passageway that led to the flanking structures. Despite its relatively small size, the patio contained a central altar constructed of a single talud and tablero and an adjacent tlecuil. The patio, stairs, and passageway were all floored with stucco, and the patio walls and altar faced with tabular stone.

On the north side, Structure 1, the most extensively explored, was spacious, well built, and floored with stucco. The room facing the patio was quite large and contained two rectangular structures described as altars (Figures 2g and 2h), both of which were larger than and different in construction from that of the central patio. Both were simple rectangular enclosures constructed of unworked stone, one of which was constructed entirely of basalt. No other information is available regarding Structure 1 or its contents. Three radiocarbon samples recovered from Structure 1 yielded dates whose probability ranges collectively spanned the Early and Late Tollan phases (Table 3:K, O, S).

Excavation on the west side of the patio uncovered a portion of Structure 2 consisting of a spacious room floored with stucco and containing a subfloor tlecuil (Gómez Serafiín et al. Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:Figure 37, upper; not shown in Figure 2). Excavation continued beneath the floor and encountered wall remnants and a stucco floor of an earlier structure that lay c. 40 cm below Structure 2. This earlier structure, designated Structure 2-sub A, contained two prominent features, a small rectangular altar and a stone-lined subfloor cist (Figures 2i and 2j), the latter containing an extended human burial with an array of highly unusual grave goods, as recently reported by Hernández et al. (Reference Hernández, Healan and Beekman2019) and described below.

Like the altar in the central patio, the Structure 2-sub A altar had the form of a single talud faced with courses of tabular stone and a tablero constructed of stone and mud mortar decorated with a succession of rectangular or greca-like elements carved in relief and painted in alternating colors of red and white (Gómez Serafiín et al. Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:Foto 20, Figure 39; Hernández et al. Reference Hernández, Healan and Beekman2019:Figure 5). The altar contained a zoomorphic Tohil Plumbate vessel (Gómez Serafiín et al. Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:Figure 4).

During exploration along the east side of the altar, six stacks of two Tollan phase vessels were encountered beneath the Structure 2-sub A floor, in association with an even earlier stucco floor designated Structure 2-sub B (Gomez et al. Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:Foto 21, Figure 39). Each stack consisted of a Jara Polished Orange bowl topped by an inverted Toza Smoothed Brown bowl, and at least five contained a human cranium, reported to be of three children and two young adults, hence the entire deposit was collectively designated Burials 31 a-e. Each cranium included at least three cervical vertebrae suggesting decapitation, and one of the children's skulls had been exposed to fire. Although stratigraphically preceding the altar construction, the pattern of their placement suggests knowledge of its impending construction, which suggests Burials 31 were a dedicatory offering prior to construction of Structure 2-sub A and its altar. This raises striking parallels to Feature 5, likewise a dedicatory offering preceding construction of an altar and associated structural complex, excavated in the PGR Locality some 500 meters to the south (Gamboa Cabezas and Healan Reference Gamboa Cabezas and Healan2021), in this case involving some 49 individuals, mostly children, some of whom showed evidence of decapitation or exposure to fire (Medrano Enríquez Reference Medrano Enríquez2021).

The subfloor cist lay immediately to the north of the altar, measuring c. 1 × 2 meters and c. 70 cm deep and constructed of worked stone blocks coated with red-painted stucco on the interior (Gómez Serafiín et al. Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:Figure 4; Hernández et al. Reference Hernández, Healan and Beekman2019:55). Its burial, designated Burial 29, was a middle aged adult male lying face up and fully extended (Gómez Serafiín et al. Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:84–87, Figure 38, Foto 19). Ceramic grave goods included four Tollan phase (Jara Polished Orange) vessels and a Tojil Plumbate vessel (Gómez Serafiín et al. Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:Fotos 18 and 19). Faunal goods included a probable pectoral ornament made from an armadillo carapace, beads of mother of pearl and other shell, a whole pearl oyster (Pinctada mazatlanica), and three teeth of a lemon shark (Negaprion brevirostiris).

Burial 29 contained a wide variety of lithic objects that included beads and mosaic elements of various kinds of stone, two obsidian projectile points, two prismatic cores, and a large quantity of lithic material underneath the skeleton that, according to Hernández et al. (Reference Hernández, Healan and Beekman2019), included both worked and unworked specimens of various types of rocks and minerals including jadeite, listwanite, prehnite, and pyrite, as well as corundum, a rare and extremely hard (9 Mohs) mineral that would have been invaluable for cutting, grinding, and lapidary work. Also present was a single fragment (< 1 cm) of what might be slag, which the authors suggest could indicate gold working.

We agree with Hernández and colleagues that the wide range of lithic types, both unworked and in various stages of being worked, including by abrasion, represents a sample of materials associated with lapidary work that suggests both the likely use for which the corundum was intended and possible ties between Burial 29 and Tula's lapidary industry.

Although the cist and burial pre-date Structure 2, they appear to post-date the occupation of Structure 2-sub A, since the cist projected c. 30 cm above the floor of the latter structure as an open pit with no type of covering. It seems likely that the cist was constructed and Burial 29 interred immediately prior to the construction of Structure 2, thus sealed by its floor.

Exploratory excavation beneath the Structure 2-sub B floor encountered a c. 25 cm thick layer of ashy soil from which were recovered two carved stone panels bearing images of the deities the Aztecs called Yacatecuhtli, god of merchants (Figure 6), and Huehueteotl, the old god. Gómez Serafiín et al. (Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:Figure 37 lowermost) dated the ash layer to the Corral phase occupation, although this has not been confirmed by associated ceramics.

To summarize, limited excavation along the west side of the central patio in the North Complex encountered evidence of at least four episodes of occupation, the earliest of which was a possible Corral phase midden containing carved stone images of known deities from the later Aztec period that possibly dated to the Corral phase. This deposit was overlain by Structure 2-sub B, an ill-defined structure that was later the site of a dedicatory offering involving at least five severed human heads prior to constructing Structure 2 sub-A and its altar. The latter structure later became the site of an elaborate cist burial containing an intriguing variety of faunal and lithic material. The cist and burial appear to have immediately preceded construction of Structure 2, the western component of the North Complex.

Finally, excavation of Structure 3 along the south side of the North Complex patio was likewise extremely limited in scale, too limited in fact to get a clear idea of what the encountered remains represent. Aside from a single isolated 2 x 2 m square that exposed a floor and adjacent wall, the excavation consisted of an east-west transect exposing two parallel east-west walls, between which were two insubstantial north-south stone partitions enclosing a nearly square subfloor, stone-lined cist (Figure 2k). The cist contained a cache of eight whole, exotic vessels including two unidentified red on brown vessels, a Tojil plumbate vessel, two miniature zoomorphic vessels, and three Silho Fine Orange vessels including a Maya style polychrome vessel now on display in the Museo Acosta and currently undergoing further study by Paredes Gudiño. A similar cache of Tojil Plumbate and Las Vegas polychrome vessels from Central America was encountered in an adobe-lined subfloor pit in a residential compound in the nearby Canal locality (Diehl et al. Reference Diehl, Lomas and Wynn1974).

Considering the extremely small area of the North Complex that was actually excavated, the elaborate and unique features encountered and the often sumptuous and exceptional character of what was recovered is truly astonishing, and leaves to the imagination what else may have come to light had more extensive exposure been possible. Based upon the results of what was excavated, there can be little doubt that the North Complex and probably the earlier structures were occupied by individuals of high status. Likewise, the East Complex, with its elaborate architecture and nearby temple would appear to have housed individuals of comparable status.

Las Plazas and Edificio J Localities

At the Las Plazas locality immediately west of Tula Grande (Figure 1d), excavations of a small mound/plaza complex encountered a burial containing two individuals and a radiocarbon sample that produced a two-sigma range of approximately a.d. 890–1040 (Table 1:H'). Excavation encountered a fragment of a chacmool sculpture, possibly the symbolic burial of a ritually killed object.

The Proyecto Tula ’80 investigations included exposure and partial consolidation of Building J, a long mound located on the east side of Tula Grande (Figure 1k) that was partially excavated by Acosta (Reference Acosta1960). Excavation atop the mound encountered a badly damaged structure, with traces of stucco-covered floors and walls. Despite its badly damaged state, three radiocarbon samples were recovered from the structure, producing dates whose probability ranges fell mainly within the Early Tollan and Late Tollan phases (Table 1:F', I', J').

Cerro Malinche Locality

Excavation encountered Aztec burials placed beneath the floors of the latest Tollan phase structures in Mounds I and III. In addition, an isolated deposit of long bones laid side by side was encountered on the floor of a room flanking the interior patio and impluvium of the uppermost structure in Mound III. The deposit was situated around 5 cm above the stucco floor, and their intact nature suggests they had been buried in the soil that had accumulated after the structure was abandoned. In another area of the same structure, several intrusive walls appeared to define a relatively insubstantial structure of small rooms and earthen floors overlying the Tollan phase structure. Associated ceramics were Aztec III, but one burial contained a vessel identified as Aztec II. One of the burials in Mound I was found inside the fill of a small, ill-defined stone enclosure constructed over the Tollan phase structure.

Three radiocarbon dates were recovered from reoccupation contexts, one from Mound III and two from Mound I, which yielded dates that principally span the twelfth through fifteenth centuries a.d. (Table 1:V, Y, Z). The date for sample V occupies the time span of the Fuego phase (Table 2), but was not associated with Aztec II ceramics. On the other hand, sample Z was associated with a burial containing Aztec II ceramics, but dates to the Tesoro phase, although field notes indicate that the sample may have fallen from a higher level (Abascal Reference Abascal Macías1982). This particular burial was placed inside the third step of a Tollan phase stairway.

Zapata II, Viaducto, Las Pilas Localities

Excavations in the Zapata II locality encountered 13 burials, including some with Aztec III and Aztec IV vessels. The Aztec burials had been placed inside existing Tollan phase structures with little disturbance. In both the Viaducto and Las Pilas localities, Aztec III ceramics were associated with a reoccupation of Tollan phase structures. The Viaducto reoccupation included new construction as well, a relatively simple stone wall enclosure containing several burials. A radiocarbon sample from a reoccupation context at Las Pilas yielded a date with a two-sigma range of approximately a.d. 1473–1641 (Table 1:C').

Vivero Locality

During the Palacio phase, at least one of the Tollan phase residential compounds was reoccupied and used as an obsidian core/blade workshop. Approximately 58,000 flakes, blades, cores, and other artifacts of green (Pachuca) obsidian were recovered from levels overlying the floor in Structure 1 (Figure 2), along with Aztec III ceramics. Based on a study of the workshop lithics (Fernández Reference Fernández Dávila and Dávila1994), it appears to have performed essentially the same general activities of producing prismatic cores and subsequent blades that were performed in a core/blade workshop from the Tollan phase, located around 1.3 km to the southeast (Healan et al. Reference Healan, Kerley and Bey1983). Two radiocarbon samples associated with the workshop yielded dates whose ranges fell mainly in the thirteenth century a.d. (Table 1:W, X).

Museo Locality

Some of the most salient evidence of the Aztec period occupation comes from the Museo locality, particularly the the West complex (Figure 2), where later construction consisting of rather insubstantial stone walls, creating a series of small rooms, overlay the floor of a portion of one of the Tollan phase structures. Additional reoccupation activity included 33 burials placed in various areas of the Tollan phase structures (Gómez Serafín et al. Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:Figure 8). Of particular interest is an elongated east–west cluster of 21 burials and 19 globular ollas in the central patio (Figures 2b and 9). The majority of the burials were children, both primary and secondary burials, some with grave goods, and two of the ollas are known to have contained a child burial (Entierro 86; Gómez Serafín et al. Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:116–117, Foto 29). The authors were unable to provide any information about the contents of the other ollas, “por circunstancias ajenas” (Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:129), but suggested that they, too, had held burials.

Figure 9.

East–west distribution of Aztec period burials and ollas probably containing burials in the patio of a Tollan phase residential compound in the Museo locality (Gómez Serafín et al. Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:Figure 52).

Despite their placement in a common location and in a similar elongated cluster, the burials and ollas appear to have been deposited independently of each other. The ollas were deposited directly or almost directly on the patio floor (Figure 9), while the burials occurred throughout much of the overlying soil layers, hence the ollas appear to have been deposited shortly after the compound was abandoned, while the burials would have been deposited over a longer period of time.

Although no data are available concerning their contents, it is reasonable to assume that the other ollas likewise contained burials which, given their size based on published photographs, would likely have been subadults. Similar ollas containing burials were found in association with Aztec reoccupation of a Tollan phase residential compound at Daini in the Tula river valley, northeast of Tula Grande (Peña and Rodriguez Reference Peña, Rodríguez and Matos1976). The majority of the ollas in the Museo locality patio had been “killed” by puncturing, and at least ten were capped with inverted bowls (Figure 9). The latter ten included an Orange Polychrome and other Aztec vessels but also diagnostic Tollan phase vessels (Gómez Serafín et al. Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:129). The use of Tollan phases vessels as Aztec mortuary furniture is without precedent, but appears to be a very specific example of a much larger pattern of Aztec veneration of objects taken from the ruins of Tula (Duran Reference Duran1964:511; López Luján and López Austin Reference López Luján, López Austin, Fash and Luján2009; Sahagún Reference Sahagún1961:165).

Additional burials were encountered in other parts of the same compound (Gómez Serafín et al. Reference Serafín, Susana, Sansores and Fernández Dávila1994:Figure 8). Two radiocarbon samples recovered from the reoccupation contexts in the compound produced probability ranges in the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries a.d. (Table 1:B', D').

Las Plazas and Edificio J Localities

During exploratory excavations at Las Pilas, a single radiocarbon sample was recovered that yielded a date with an age likewise in the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries a.d. (Table 1:A'), consistent with other evidence of a strong Aztec presence at Tula Grande.

During excavations of the badly damaged structure atop Edificio J, a burial associated with a probable Aztec II figurine was encountered in front of the exterior wall on the plaza side of the structure.