Bioarchaeology has incorporated many new approaches and scientific techniques over the past decade, one of which specifically concentrates on the social lives of individuals in prehistory. In this book, consideration of the social concept of care-giving in the ‘deep past” is made through the Index of Care model (Tilley Reference Tilley2015). The book begins with a range of case studies which test and contribute to this model. There are, in addition, chapters on new directions for research in bioarchaeology of care, and discussions on ethics and accountability. In the foreword, Debra Martin emphasises the book's innovative approach, offering ‘new avenues of study into the lived experience of individuals in the past’. It brings the past to life, challenging our thinking about health-related care behaviours and their implications for understanding the social environment in which they took place. The case studies draw on internationally distinguished bioarchaeologists, several with long experience, as well as others in the early stages of their research.

In Chapter 2, Tilley introduces us to her previously developed Index of Care model and its four stages. Her development of the different stages adds considerable information to the skeletal material, even though the words ‘likely’ and ‘possibly’ are used, underlining the inferential nature of the interpretation. She moves from a detailed archaeological overview to issues of interpretation and the role of agency and identity. It is not uncommon for prehistoric skeletons to exhibit evidence of trauma and illness, from repaired broken bones to evidence of leprosy and cerebral palsy. But what was the relevance to the social context of caring, who decided that it should be provided and took the necessary steps to ensure the wellbeing of those in need?

Tilley provides a neat visualisation of the pathway of disability with the Index of Care suggesting a process of decision making, beginning with the recognition of an individual's disability and need for care, and ending with discontinuing care through possibly death. ‘This process’, says Tilley, ‘establishes the groundwork for the task that follows, in which researchers are asked to devise case study-specific questions with the aim of producing the most complete picture possible of the community in which care was given’. Here we bring in cultural practice, values and identity – and ask: where does care fit? For example, in a subsistence environment, what might the decision to provide long-term care to a severely disabled subject imply about group social relations? Much of this is beyond our scope, says Tilley, but it is worthwhile in terms of realising the humanity in the past, and to offer it just respect.

Each subsequent chapter provides us with different ideas on aspects of care, without exception to a high standard of scholarship and style. We read of the reconstruction of care for a middle-aged man with leprosy, placing him within the time and culture of medieval England. Charlotte Roberts (Chapter 6) is clear about what can and what cannot be said about the man's experience, producing evidence from bone lesions that indicate the care required, such as shelter and sustenance. Because of the effects of leprosy, he would have required encouragement and assistance to eat and drink. Care of ulcers would have been needed, possibly help with walking and other activities of daily living. Heather Worne (Chapter 5) reflects on providing care in an agricultural society, indicating the merits of group co-operation and organisation. She suggests that individuals are sufficiently well regarded and able to contribute to group welfare in order that care is ensured. Rebecca Gowland's chapter on ‘Growing Old’ (Chapter 12) focuses on ‘biographies of disability and care in later life’. She widens the context of care in the past from motherhood to the growing infirmity of the elderly, with the likely need for physical, practical and social care, suggesting assistance from what we call now family, friends or neighbours. A nice sentence from Gowland encapsulates the ideas of the book: ‘the skeleton does not represent a snapshot in time, but rather a selective accumulation of life experiences which impact upon the chemical and morphological structure of the bones’ (p. 239). As Gowland reflects, care in the past has rarely been considered in archaeology. There are assumptions of family living, and the likelihood of respect and care for elders. There is also evidence of possible abuse. Two older women were buried in ‘non-normative burial positions’ distant from the main burial sites, with one possibly buried alive (p. 245). Further interesting discussion follows on problems of identifying abuse, and cases of neglect. Yet another fascinating chapter is that on Mummy Studies (Chapter 10). The discussion by Kenneth Nystrom and Dario Pionbino-Mascali provides insights into ‘therapeutic tattooing’ and their focus on soft tissue is the only one in this volume. Also the Alecia Shrenk and Debra Martin chapter on the Bronze Age teenager living with paralysis (Chapter 3) demonstrates that the ‘characteristics of different diseases have different implications for thinking about the necessities of care’.

The bioarchaeology of care approach adds a new and vital dimension to research undertaken with human remains, offering access to understanding ordinary people's experiences. This book, with its range of chapters, wealth of evidence and the Index of Care material, sits well beyond the obvious archaeological/biological readership, moving into the area of the interested lay reader, health and allied health professionals, as well as anthropologists and sociologists specialising in health care.

There is no doubt that this is an important and timely addition to the literature on the individual in prehistoric and early historic societies. Many new approaches and techniques are being deployed to illuminate the human past through the remains of the actors themselves. There is the study of ancient DNA. Isotopes in the teeth reveal mobility, dental plaque reflects diet, and cranial and dental morphology evidence migratory movements. But the individual should never be neglected. A shattered femur tells us that an individual suffered extreme pain, distress and disability. That it ultimately healed tells us about empathy and solicitude. Here is a volume that clearly documents the relevance of this approach to the past.