Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology have provided students and practitioners with authoritative guides by leading scholars on key aspects of archaeological practice for more than twenty-five years. Archaeologists with an interest in the study of animals have been especially well served, with volumes covering Zooarchaeology (Reitz and Wing 1999, 2nd edn 2008), Teeth (Hillson 1986, 2nd edn 2005), Shells (Claassen 1998), Fishes (Wheeler and Jones 1989, 2nd edn 2009) and Vertebrate Taphonomy (Lyman 1994). The three new volumes reviewed here further complement this tradition.
Quantitative Paleozoology sets out to address a deceptively simple question: what are the most reliable techniques for quantifying fragments of animal bones and teeth within archaeological and palaeontological samples? Quantification is fundamental to every zooarchaeological and palaeontological investigation; yet there is little standardization of practice and considerable debate regarding the most ‘suitable’ methods. By drawing together the experiences of zooarchaeologists and palaeontologists, Lyman synthesizes these techniques and critically evaluates their strengths and weaknesses by the use of worked-through case studies and the statistical examination of archaeological data.
The two primary quantitative units employed by zooarchaeologists are NISP (the number of identified specimens) and MNI (the minimum number of individuals necessary to account for a faunal assemblage). The relative merits of these techniques have been oft debated within the zooarchaeological literature and Lyman devotes considerable attention to their strengths and limitations, elegantly demonstrating the correlation between NISP and MNI calculations and arguing convincingly that ‘NISP is to be preferred over MNI as the quantitative unit used to measure taxonomic abundance’ (p 81). Other measures of taxonomic abundance that have been developed specifically to overcome real or perceived weaknesses with MNI and NISP estimates or to quantify different aspects of faunal assemblages (such as meat weight) are also appraised with the same level of empirical precision. This analysis further strengthens the argument for preferring NISP, since many of these ‘improved’ methods simply replicate and/or compound the weaknesses of NISP and MNI data.
The focus of the volume extends well beyond taxonomic abundance, however. Sampling strategies and their influence on faunal data sets are not only raised, but – just as importantly – the techniques by which one might identify and quantify these biases are also explained. This neatly leads on to a survey and critical appraisal of the methods that can be used to explore and measure the structure and composition of faunal assemblages, tackling ways by which factors such as taxonomic richness and evenness can be compared across assemblages. The final chapters of the volume draw in Lyman's expertise in taphonomy by considering techniques for quantifying and comparing body-part representation, fragmentation and a range of taphonomic variables (butchery, burning and weathering, for example).
Birds provides a temporally and spatially comprehensive synthesis of current knowledge regarding the significance and study of birds within archaeology. The first half of the volume provides copious practical advice regarding the study of bird remains from archaeological sites, clearly born of many years of experience. It begins with an introduction to bird biology, behaviour and skeletal anatomy, and proceeds with a chapter on the techniques available for determining the age and sex of bird bones and incorporates a welcome, albeit brief, section on pathology (written by Tony Waldron). A thorough review of the methods and problems involved in identifying and quantifying bird bones follows, with detailed hints provided for the most commonly occurring bird taxa (Galliformes, Anseriformes and Columbiformes). Taphonomic considerations occupy two chapters and include discussions of recovery, natural accumulations and damage and a range of anthropogenic modifications (such as butchery, burning, gnawing and fragmentation).
While birds are most commonly represented on archaeological sites by osseous remains, eggshells and feathers are also occasionally recovered. Two chapters deal with the identification of these remains (such as how eggshell can be identified using microscopic techniques or how feather exploitation can be identified on sites where conditions do not permit the preservation of the feathers themselves) and both stress the importance of these resources to past societies. A chapter is also devoted to the use of bird bones as tools, instruments and ornaments.
The remainder of the volume summarizes the current state of knowledge regarding key aspects of human–bird relationships and provides a critical platform for future research. Overviews, drawing together historical, anthropological and archaeological evidence, are provided on the material and symbolic role of wild and domestic birds as food items (with detailed consideration given to the changes that occurred under domestication), their role in sport and as objects of affection and their utilization as symbols and within ritual contexts. Before concluding by drawing attention to a number of outstanding research questions, the volume explores the way in which bird remains can be used to elucidate aspects of past environmental change and the way in which people have influenced the distribution of birds (through introductions and extirpations).
Microarchaeology: beyond the visible archaeological record is considerably broader in scope than the two preceding volumes. It aims to outline the potential of different kinds of microscopic information that can be extracted from commonly encountered archaeological materials (bones, ceramics, rocks, ash and sediments, for example), and explain how the quality and reliability of that information can be assessed. The focus is thus not on methods (although these are briefly mentioned), but rather on providing a conceptual framework for extracting different kinds of microarchaeological evidence in the field and the laboratory.
The volume begins with background chapters that consider the types of information that can be obtained from the microscopic record (organized by theme: provenancing, dating and dietary and environmental reconstruction, for example), review the factors that affect the completeness (or incompleteness) of the archaeological record and provide a framework for how this can be assessed, and summarize commonly occurring mineral components found on archaeological sites and the methods by which these can be identified.
Two chapters follow that detail the composition of biological materials (bones, teeth, phytoliths, diatoms, eggshell, otoliths and mollusc shells), the information that can be extracted from them, and the biasing effects of diagenesis. The latter is a key theme throughout the volume and is dealt with in chapters that focus upon the identification of pyrotechnological processes (deliberate fires) in a range of materials (such as plant remains, plaster and ceramics), biomolecules embedded within ‘protected niches’ (for example, lipids in ceramic vessels) and the collection of samples for absolute dating.
Two further chapters consider the potential of ethno-microarchaeology for understanding past human activities and the issues faced when running an on-site laboratory. Questions to be asked of the microscopic record and future trends are also raised in the latter chapter. It is therefore somewhat curious that this ‘conclusion’ is followed by a chapter on the application of infra-red spectroscopy in archaeology. Overall, this book does bring into sharp focus (pardon the pun) the archaeological benefits of extracting information from the microscopic record; however, the broad remit does come at the expense of structural coherence.
All three volumes are authoritatively and lucidly written, illustrated well with figures and tables and supported by richly detailed and up-to-date bibliographies. These volumes will be intensely mined by advanced undergraduate and graduate students. However, there is also much of value for the seasoned practitioner and the general archaeologist. I have little doubt that these books will become the standard works in their respective fields for years to come and further strengthen the legacy of the Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology series.
