Introduction
Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari, commonly known as guggul or Indian bdellium, is a medicinally important perennial shrub belonging to the family Burseraceae (Patel et al. Reference Patel, Srivastava, Kapoor, Joshi, Joshi and Patel2024). The species has been valued for centuries in traditional medicinal systems, such as Ayurveda and Unani medicine, due to its aromatic oleo-gum resin that exhibits diverse therapeutic properties (Supplementary Table S1; Singh et al. Reference Singh, Dhyani and Kaur2015). The resin, commonly referred to as guggul gum, contains a complex mixture of bioactive compounds including steroids, terpenoids and essential oils, among which Guggulsterone-E and -Z are recognized as the principal pharmacologically active constituents (Supplementary Figure S1; Sarup et al. Reference Sarup, Pahuja and Malik2022). These compounds have been widely studied for their anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, antimicrobial and cardioprotective activities, contributing significantly to the medicinal and commercial value of the species (Supplementary Figure S2). Because of its therapeutic importance and extensive use in herbal formulations, guggul has emerged as an economically valuable non-timber forest product in the arid and semi-arid regions of the Indian subcontinent (Reddy et al. Reference Reddy, Meena, Krishna, Charan and Sharma2012). The oleo-gum resin serves as an essential raw material for pharmaceutical industries and traditional medicine practitioners, leading to increasing demand in both domestic and international markets.
The natural distribution of C. wightii extends across the dry regions of India, Pakistan and Afghanistan, where the species is well adapted to harsh environmental conditions characterized by low rainfall, high temperatures and poor soil fertility. In India, the species occurs predominantly in the north-western states, including Rajasthan and Gujarat, with smaller populations reported from Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Haryana (Yadava Reference Yadava2011). These populations are predominantly distributed in the dry forests of the Indian Desert and the Aravalli hill ranges. Several related species of Commiphora, including C. agallocha, C. stocksiana and C. caudata occurring across India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and regions of tropical and southern Africa, also exude resin (Figure 1). However, the resin obtained from these species is generally considered inferior in quality compared to that of C. wightii. A detailed overview of these species is provided in Table 1.
Different species of guggul (A) C. wightii (B) C. agallocha (C) C. stocksiana (D) C. caudata.
Salient features of important Commiphora species
Table 1 Long description
Comparison of four Commiphora species across common names, geographic origin and distribution, distinguishing plant traits, major chemical constituents, and cited sources. Commiphora wightii (guggul) occurs in arid north-western India, Pakistan, and parts of the Arabian Peninsula and is a spiny shrub or small tree producing guggul resin rich in guggulsterones, along with sterols, flavonoids, and lignans. Commiphora caudata is a medium-sized deciduous tree from peninsular India, Sri Lanka, and parts of South-East Asia, noted for smooth green bark that flakes into a green–brown patchwork and a raw-mango-like aroma; listed compounds include campesterol, stigmasterol, lupeol, and multiple phenolic classes. Commiphora stocksiana (Mitho Guggal) is adapted to dry rocky regions of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan and is described as an aromatic resin-producing shrub or small tree used locally as incense; compounds include liquiritin, guggulsterone E, boswellic acid derivatives, cedrelone, and lupeol. Commiphora agallocha, also referred to as Indian bdellium-tree and noted as closely related to C. wightii, is reported from India and Pakistan and contains TTDI, quinic acid, phenolic acids, oxygenated sesquiterpenes, and butyl phenol. Across entries, resin production and aromatic properties recur, while growth form and bark characteristics help differentiate species. Chemical lists are selective and may not represent complete phytochemical profiles or relative abundance.
Botanically, C. wightii is a slow-growing, deciduous and xerophytic shrub characterized by spiny branches and a distinctive papery bark that peels off in thin silvery flakes (Figure 2). The plant typically grows to a height of 1–3 m and bears trifoliate leaves that are adapted to minimize water loss in arid environments. Small reddish-pink flowers occur in clusters, while the fruits are globose, 6–8 mm in diameter and turn pink to red upon ripening. The plant exudes an aromatic oleo-gum resin when the bark is injured or incised (Sarup et al. Reference Sarup, Pahuja and Malik2022). This resin has historically been harvested from wild plants and serves as the primary medicinally valuable component of the species.
Morphological characteristics of guggul (A) Fruiting twig bearing trifoliate leaves and immature fruits (B) Mature trifoliate leaves showing variation in leaf shape and serrated margins (C) Flower at successive developmental stages, showing pre-anthesis (right) and anthesis (left), with the corolla, persistent calyx, elongated style and stigma (D) Longitudinally opened mature fruits showing the yellow fleshy aril surrounding the seed (E) Mature seeds after removal of the seed coat, illustrating empty (non-viable) seeds.
Natural populations of C. wightii have undergone a severe decline in recent decades due to overexploitation, destructive resin tapping and inherently poor natural regeneration (Rot et al. Reference Rot, Sasikumar, Sujnan, Jha and Katara2022; Geetha and Pidigam Reference Geetha, Pidigam, Máthé and Khan2026). The situation is further complicated by adulteration of guggul resin with products derived from related species such as Boswellia serrata, C. myrrha and C. roxburghii, which share similar organoleptic properties, thereby creating challenges in quality control and trade standardization (Singh et al. Reference Singh, Dhyani and Kaur2015; Batiha et al. Reference Batiha, Wasef, Teibo, Shaheen, Zakariya, Akinfe and Papadakis2023). In response to the rapid depletion of wild populations, India has imposed restrictions on the export of guggul resin to support conservation initiatives. Consequently, the species has been classified as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature under the IUCN Red List, emphasizing the urgent need for coordinated conservation and management interventions (Ved et al. Reference Ved, Saha, Ravikumar and Haridasan2015). The continued decline of C. wightii reflects not only population loss but also progressive genetic erosion, threatening the species’ adaptive potential and long-term resilience.
The present review is novel in its comprehensive and integrative approach, positioning C. wightii within a plant genetic resource framework. Unlike earlier reviews that primarily focus on phytochemistry or propagation, it establishes explicit linkages between ecological degradation, reproductive constraints, anthropogenic pressures and genetic erosion. By incorporating advances in molecular biology, genomics and tissue culture alongside conventional conservation strategies, the review proposes a holistic framework for species recovery relevant to both scientific advancement and policy formulation.
Biology and ecology of species
Commiphora wightii is well adapted to the extreme environmental conditions of arid and semi-arid ecosystems and is commonly found in open scrub forests, rocky hill slopes and degraded drylands where annual rainfall is typically low and temperatures may exceed 45°C during summer months (Kumar Reference Kumar2014). The plant thrives in shallow, rocky and calcareous soils that possess low organic matter content but good drainage.
The reproductive biology of C. wightii presents several inherent constraints that significantly limit its natural regeneration. The species exhibits a gynodioecious reproductive system, in which populations consist of both female and hermaphroditic plants. This reproductive strategy often results in irregular fruit set and reduced seed production (Geetha et al. Reference Geetha, Kawane, Bishoyi, Phurailatpam, Ankita, Malik and Bhat2013). Furthermore, the species produces both viable and non-viable seeds. Black-coloured seeds are generally fertile and capable of germination, whereas white seeds are often sterile, resulting in highly variable seed viability.
In addition to low seed viability, the species frequently exhibits polyembryony (the development of two or more embryos within a single seed, often including adventive or nucellar embryos alongside the zygotic embryo) and irregular flowering behaviour, which further complicates successful sexual reproduction. Only a small proportion of flowers develop into mature fruits, and environmental factors such as drought and temperature stress often interfere with successful seed development (Reddy et al. Reference Reddy, Meena, Krishna, Charan and Sharma2012). Seed germination under natural conditions is extremely poor and often remains below 10%. Even when germination occurs, seedlings experience high mortality due to adverse environmental conditions, including prolonged drought, grazing pressure and competition from other plant species (Yadava Reference Yadava2011). These biological limitations severely restrict the establishment of new individuals in natural populations.
Another important ecological characteristic of the species is its slow growth rate and prolonged juvenile phase before reproductive maturity. Plants may require several years to reach reproductive stage, making them particularly vulnerable to disturbances such as overharvesting, habitat degradation and climatic stress (Rot et al. Reference Rot, Sasikumar, Sujnan, Jha and Katara2022). These ecological and reproductive constraints collectively reduce the resilience of natural populations and hinder their capacity to recover after disturbance.
Understanding these limitations is therefore essential for designing effective propagation protocols, conservation strategies and restoration programmes aimed at ensuring the long-term survival of the species.
Current conservation status
The conservation status of C. wightii has deteriorated markedly over the past few decades owing to a combination of anthropogenic pressures and intrinsic biological limitations. Historically, the species was widely distributed across the arid and semi-arid regions of north-western India. However, intensive exploitation for oleo-gum-resin, indiscriminate lopping of branches, collection of wood for fuel and widespread habitat degradation have resulted in a drastic decline of natural populations throughout its distribution range (Rot et al. Reference Rot, Sasikumar, Sujnan, Jha and Katara2022).
Field investigations across its major distribution areas have demonstrated extensive population fragmentation, with natural stands now restricted to small, isolated patches. In Rajasthan and Gujarat, where C. wightii was once relatively abundant, only scattered individuals or remnant populations persist (Reddy et al. Reference Reddy, Meena, Krishna, Charan and Sharma2012). Surveys conducted in Rajasthan during 2007–2009 recorded the species at only about 2% of the surveyed locations, with an estimated area of occupancy of less than 500 km2 and population declines exceeding 50% within a decade (Kulloli et al. Reference Kulloli, Purohit, Kumar, Jindal, Rawat and Acharya2013). Most surviving populations are dominated by mature individuals, while natural regeneration and recruitment of seedlings remain extremely poor, indicating limited population replacement. This demographic imbalance, together with habitat fragmentation, has led to reduced genetic diversity, thereby diminishing the long-term adaptability and survival prospects of the species (Rot et al. Reference Rot, Sasikumar, Sujnan, Jha and Katara2022).
Reflecting the severity of these threats, C. wightii was initially categorized as Data Deficient (DD) in the IUCN Red List due to inadequate information but was subsequently reassessed and listed as Critically Endangered (CR) under IUCN Red List criterion A2cd in 2014 based on its rapid population decline, restricted distribution and continuing habitat degradation (IUCN 2015; Ved et al. Reference Ved, Saha, Ravikumar and Haridasan2015). At the national level, the Government of India has included the species under the Rare, Endangered and Threatened (RET) category (Samanta et al. Reference Samanta, Mandal, Saravanan, Gajbhiye and Ravi2016). As an additional conservation measure, resin tapping of C. wightii has been prohibited in Rajasthan to reduce further depletion of wild populations (Samanta and Mandal Reference Samanta and Mandal2014).
The conservation crisis is further intensified by the widening gap between the demand and supply of guggul resin. Domestic production is insufficient to meet the increasing demand from the pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and herbal industries, resulting in continued harvesting pressure on the remaining wild populations (Cunningham et al. Reference Cunningham, Brinckmann, Kulloli and Schippmann2018). The declining availability of authentic resin has also caused a substantial increase in market prices over the past decade, encouraging unsustainable harvesting practices and increasing the risk of adulteration in commercial trade.
Major threats to survival
Among the various factors responsible for the decline of C. wightii, destructive resin tapping remains one of the most serious anthropogenic threats. Oleo-gum-resin is traditionally harvested through bark incision; however, unscientific tapping methods involving deep and repeated cuts, excessive scraping and off-season extraction severely damage cambial and vascular tissues, disrupting nutrient transport and physiological processes and often leading to branch dieback or plant mortality (Meena et al. Reference Meena, Sharma and Rathore2010; Reddy et al. Reference Reddy, Meena, Krishna, Charan and Sharma2012; Soni and Swarnkar Reference Soni and Swarnkar2014). The use of chemical stimulants to increase resin yield further aggravates plant stress. Copper sulphate-based formulations, commonly applied to enhance resin exudation, accelerate tissue necrosis and frequently result in plant death (Yadava Reference Yadava2011; Saini et al. Reference Saini, Rajput, Rathore and Tomar2018). Traditional stimulant mixtures containing animal urine, resin and copper sulphate have similarly been reported to intensify plant decline (Soni and Swarnkar Reference Soni and Swarnkar2006). Field observations from Anand and Mangliawas revealed progressive darkening, desiccation and death of tapped branches within 8–10 months, largely due to copper-induced toxicity (Nair et al. Reference Nair, Bhatt, Paradva, Fursule, Raturi and Verma2024). Although artificial stimulants such as ethephon and bacterial inducers can enhance gum production, they are often associated with increased mortality rates (Saini et al. Reference Saini, Rajput, Rathore and Tomar2018).
The growing demand for guggul in pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and perfumery industries has intensified pressure on natural populations. Repeated harvesting without adequate recovery periods weakens plant vigour, reduces resin productivity and shortens lifespan, ultimately leading to population depletion and erosion of genetic diversity (Singh et al. Reference Singh, Dhyani and Kaur2015). Surveys conducted across Rajasthan have demonstrated a strong association between unsustainable tapping practices, high mortality and poor recruitment (Jain and Nadgauda Reference Jain and Nadgauda2013).
Natural regeneration is further constrained by the inherently low reproductive efficiency of the species. Only about 10–15% of flowers develop into viable seeds, severely limiting genetic recombination and adaptive potential (Jain and Nadgauda Reference Jain and Nadgauda2013). Low seeds set results from a combination of inefficient pollination, harsh environmental conditions and intrinsic physiological limitations. Reproductive success in C. wightii is further limited by the production of both viable black seeds and non-viable, often empty, white seeds. In addition, natural regeneration is poor due to low-seed viability, hard seed coats that hinder germination and the rapid decline in seed viability during storage (Kumrawat et al. Reference Kumrawat, Meena, Dhakad, Tripathi, Bhandari and Naruka2024). Erratic flowering, high flower abortion and a short reproductive period further restrict fruit formation and natural regeneration (Choudhary and Tomar Reference Choudhary and Tomar2020). These limitations are further exacerbated by tapping, which reduces seed quality and reproductive output (Thomas et al. Reference Thomas, Shrivastava and Tomar2010). In addition, reproductive anomalies such as apomixis and polyembryony contribute to low genetic variability, thereby restricting the adaptive potential and long-term survival of natural populations (Meena et al. Reference Meena, Sharma and Rathore2010; Geetha et al. Reference Geetha, Kawane, Bishoyi, Phurailatpam, Ankita, Malik and Bhat2013).
Autonomous apomixis, nucellar polyembryony and autonomous endosperm development in C. wightii appear to be adaptive mechanisms that ensure reproduction under low population density and limited pollination in arid habitats. However, prolonged reliance on clonal seed production may reduce genetic diversity and constrain the species’ long-term adaptive potential (Kavane et al. Reference Kavane, Bishoyi and Geetha2021). Molecular marker analyses revealed that genetic diversity in C. wightii is more strongly associated with reproductive behaviour than with geographic distribution. Apomictic populations in Rajasthan exhibited relatively low genetic diversity, whereas populations in Gujarat, where sexual reproduction occurs, harboured substantially higher levels of genetic variation. These findings suggest that while apomixis provides reproductive assurance and facilitates persistence in fragmented populations, sexual reproduction plays a crucial role in maintaining genetic diversity and evolutionary potential (Bishoyi et al. Reference Bishoyi, Kavane, Sharma, Geetha, Samantaray and Maiti2018)
The dioecious nature of C. wightii imposes an additional reproductive challenge. Natural populations frequently exhibit skewed sex ratios with very few male plants, limiting pollen availability and successful fertilization (Kavane et al. Reference Kavane, Bishoyi and Geetha2021). Consequently, seedling recruitment remains extremely poor and is further constrained by low germination rates and high seedling mortality under arid conditions (Suthar et al. Reference Suthar, Thul, Kukreja and Ramawat2008).
Ecological pressures also contribute significantly to population decline. Invasive alien species such as Prosopis juliflora and Lantana camara increasingly dominate degraded habitats in Rajasthan and Gujarat, competing with native vegetation for scarce water, nutrients and space (Dhiman et al. Reference Dhiman, Singh and Sharma2012; Sharma et al. Reference Sharma, Meena and Rathore2014). Dense stands of P. juliflora deplete soil moisture, while L. camara suppresses native species through rapid spread and allelopathic effects (Gupta et al. Reference Gupta, Singh and Yadav2013; Islam et al. Reference Islam, Sajjad, Nawaz and Moazzam2026). For a species already characterized by poor regeneration, such competition severely restricts seedling establishment and increases mortality (Jain and Nadgauda Reference Jain and Nadgauda2013). Invasive species also alter habitat structure, disrupt pollinator activity and accelerate ecosystem degradation, thereby amplifying species vulnerability. Habitat degradation and environmental stress further threaten the survival of C. wightii. Overgrazing, deforestation, agricultural expansion and urbanization have reduced suitable habitats across its native range (Jain and Nadgauda Reference Jain and Nadgauda2013; Kulhari et al. Reference Kulhari, Sheorayan, Chaudhury, Sarkar and Kalia2015). Soil erosion, nutrient depletion and vegetation disturbance hinder seedling establishment and long-term survival. The species also faces increasing stress from arid climatic conditions and erratic rainfall patterns. Its inherently slow growth and prolonged juvenile phase delay reproductive maturity, making populations particularly vulnerable to environmental fluctuations and human disturbances (Meena et al. Reference Meena, Sharma and Rathore2010). Additional factors such as irregular flowering and fruiting, illegal resin extraction, lack of organized cultivation and unsustainable land-use practices further weaken population resilience and accelerate genetic erosion (Choudhary and Tomar Reference Choudhary and Tomar2020).
The conservation challenges faced by C. wightii are mirrored in other Boswellia and Commiphora species across arid regions. In Kenya, populations of Boswellia and Commiphora species are increasingly threatened by climate change-induced droughts, overgrazing and land degradation, which reduce regeneration, increase tree mortality and lower resin productivity (Hassan et al. Reference Hassan, Glover, Luukkanen, Chikamai, Jamnadass, Iiyama and Kanninen2011). On Socotra Island, climate projections indicate habitat loss and increased extinction risk for endemic species such as C. planifrons and C. socotrana (La Montagna et al. Reference La Montagna, Attorre, Hamdiah, Maděra, Malatesta, Vahalík and De Sanctis2023). Similarly, in Ethiopia and Eritrea, Boswellia papyrifera faces declining growth, regeneration and frankincense yield due to increasing drought and rainfall variability (Mekoya and Adgo Reference Mekoya and Adgo2026). In Oman, Boswellia sacra is also threatened by rising temperatures and prolonged drought, which impair regeneration and resin production (Mykhailenko et al. Reference Mykhailenko, Jalil, McGaw, Echeverría, Takubessi and Heinrich2025). These studies highlight the growing vulnerability of resin-producing species to climate change and emphasize the need for targeted conservation and sustainable management strategies.
Conservation strategies
The long-term conservation of C. wightii requires an integrated approach that combines sustainable harvesting, large-scale cultivation and genetic resource management (Figure 3).
Major threats and integrated conservation strategies for guggul. The schematic illustrates the major threats contributing to population decline, including unsustainable resin harvesting, habitat degradation and poor natural regeneration, together with integrated in situ and ex situ conservation approaches, sustainable utilization practices, and long-term strategies for population recovery and genetic resource conservation.
Figure 3 Long description
The infographic outlines conservation strategies for a critically endangered species. At the center is an image labeled ′Critically Endangered.′ Arrows point to various sections: 1. Major Threats: - Overexploitation - Habitat Loss - Poor Regeneration 2. In Situ Conservation: - Protected Areas - Habitat Restoration - Community Involvement 3. Sustainable Practices: - Controlled logging - Cultivation - Agroforestry 4. Ex Situ Conservation: - Germplasm Banks - Tissue culture - Seedling Nurseries - Propagation Techniques 5. Research & Genetic Resource Management: - Genetic Studies - Policy & education Each section is visually represented with images related to the topic, illustrating the comprehensive approach to conservation and management of genetic resources.
Unscientific tapping practices, including deep bark incisions and excessive use of stimulants, increase plant mortality, impair regeneration and accelerate genetic erosion by selectively eliminating mature, high-yielding individuals (Meena et al. Reference Meena, Sharma and Rathore2010; Soni and Swarnkar Reference Soni and Swarnkar2014). Improved tapping techniques based on anatomical precision offer a sustainable alternative. Shallow, controlled incisions minimize damage to cambial and vascular tissues while maintaining resin production (Figure 4; Thomas et al. Reference Thomas, Tripathi, Meena, Nishad and Vidyasagaran2020). The use of specialized tapping tools and regulated ethephon application has been shown to enhance oleo-gum-resin yield compared with conventional methods. However, sustainability depends not only on resin output but also on plant survival, particularly because younger plants (<6 years) are more susceptible to tapping stress owing to limited carbohydrate reserves (Thomas et al. Reference Thomas, Shrivastava and Tomar2010). Therefore, resin tapping should be restricted to mature plants (≥8–10 years old) with a minimum stem diameter of 5 cm. Furthermore, a recovery interval of at least 3–4 years should be maintained before re-tapping the same individual to facilitate wound healing, restore carbohydrate reserves and ensure sustained resin production while minimizing plant mortality (Samanta et al. Reference Samanta, Mandal, Saravanan, Gajbhiye and Ravi2016).
Sustainable tapping methods for oleo-gum-resin extraction in guggul (A) inverted T-shaped (B) inverted U-shaped (C) slant incision (D) vertical incision (E) horizontal incision (F) wrapping of the tapped region with polythene to protect the exuded gum from birds, dust and desiccation.
Resin production is strongly influenced by seasonal, physiological and genetic factors. Tapping during periods of active resin accumulation improves yield and reduces mortality, whereas off-season tapping adversely affects plant vigour and productivity (Samanta and Mandal Reference Samanta and Mandal2014; Samanta et al. Reference Samanta, Mandal, Saravanan, Gajbhiye and Ravi2016; Saini et al. Reference Saini, Rajput, Rathore and Tomar2018). Similarly, the use of chemical and biological stimulants presents a trade-off between yield enhancement and plant survival. Although ethephon and microbial inducers can substantially increase resin production, excessive doses often result in severe physiological stress and elevated mortality. Recent studies indicate that optimized low-dose ethephon treatments can improve resin flow while minimizing damage, providing a more balanced approach to sustainable harvesting (Nair et al. Reference Nair, Bhatt, Paradva, Fursule, Raturi and Verma2024).
The promotion of cultivation represents an equally important strategy for reducing harvesting pressure on wild populations. Integration of C. wightii into agroforestry and dryland farming systems can simultaneously support conservation and rural livelihoods. Similar restoration approaches, including enrichment planting to supplement natural regeneration in degraded stands of B. papyrifera, have been recommended to enhance population recovery and could also be adopted for C. wightii (Mekoya and Adgo Reference Mekoya and Adgo2026). Programmes supported by the National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB) and ICAR–Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research (ICAR–DMAPR) have demonstrated the feasibility of distributing quality planting material and promoting cultivation in arid and semi-arid regions.
Conservation of C. wightii further requires a combination of in situ and ex situ strategies. In situ conservation focuses on habitat protection, restoration of degraded ecosystems, regulation of harvesting practices and active community participation. Initiatives such as the Save Guggul Movement and NMPB-supported programmes have contributed to habitat restoration and sustainable utilization in western India’s arid landscapes. Ex situ conservation complements these efforts through germplasm collections, field gene banks and clonal repositories. Institutions including ICAR– Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research (DMAPR), Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and Central Arid Zone Research Institute have played key roles in germplasm conservation, genetic characterization and identification of elite chemotypes with superior guggulsterone content (Kulhari et al. Reference Kulhari, Sheorayan, Chaudhury, Sarkar and Kalia2015).
Natural regeneration in C. wightii is extremely poor, limiting its capacity to sustain natural populations. Consequently, vegetative propagation has emerged as the preferred method for large-scale multiplication (Figure 5). Semi-hardwood cuttings treated with IBA and air-layering techniques have demonstrated high establishment success and facilitate rapid multiplication of elite genotypes (Figure 6; Diwakar et al. Reference Diwakar, Umesha and Smitha2011; Behera et al. Reference Behera, Mehta, Dholariya, Sukhadiya, Gunaga and Patel2020).
Propagation through cuttings in guggul (A) Selection of healthy, disease-free semi-hardwood shoots from mature mother plants (B) preparation of cuttings of appropriate length with basal trimming to enhance rooting response (C) planting of prepared cuttings in polythene bags.
Air layering in guggul (A) Selection of a healthy semi-hardwood stem from the mother plant (B) removal of bark at the basal portion to expose the cambial region (C) preparation of a moist rooting substrate (D) placement of the rooting substrate around the treated basal portion (E) wrapping of the treated region with polythene to maintain moisture and humidity (F) application of sphagnum moss over the wrapped region (G) initiation of adventitious root formation at the basal end (H) development of a well-formed root system within the wrapping (I) removal of polythene revealing profuse root development (J) successfully established plants grown in nursery polybags.
Studies integrating controlled pollination, histological analyses, flow cytometry and molecular markers have revealed that C. wightii predominantly exhibits facultative apomixis, although sexual reproduction occurs in certain genotypes (Geetha et al. Reference Geetha, Kawane, Bishoyi, Phurailatpam, Ankita, Malik and Bhat2013; Kavane et al. Reference Kavane, Bishoyi and Geetha2021). While apomixis ensures reproductive assurance and facilitates the fixation of desirable traits, it limits genetic recombination and may contribute to reduced genetic diversity in natural populations.
Recent biotechnological advances have strengthened conservation efforts. Micropropagation and somatic embryogenesis provide efficient systems for rapid clonal multiplication and restoration programmes, overcoming the limitations of conventional propagation methods (Table 2; Figure 7; Suthar et al. Reference Suthar, Thul, Kukreja and Ramawat2008; Kant et al. Reference Kant, Prajapati and Parmar2010; Shekhawat et al. Reference Shekhawat, Jakhar, Kumawat, Choudhary, Kumar, Jat and Choudhary2018). In vitro culture systems also offer opportunities for sustainable production of guggulsterones, thereby reducing pressure on wild populations (Tanwar et al. Reference Tanwar, Mathur and Ramawat2007). Furthermore, advances in molecular genetics and genomics, including DNA marker-based diversity analyses and draft genome sequencing, have improved understanding of genetic variation and identified candidate genes associated with phytosterol biosynthesis (Banerjee et al. Reference Banerjee, Tiwari, Joshi, Jena, Sidhu, Meena and Barik2023). These resources provide a strong foundation for future breeding, conservation and genetic improvement programmes aimed at ensuring the long-term sustainability of this threatened medicinal species.
Summary of in vitro tissue culture and propagation studies in guggul
Table 2 Long description
Studies compare guggul explant types, culture media and plant growth regulators, and the resulting outcomes, with citations. Callus-based work on Gamborg B5 with 2,4-D, sometimes with kinetin, links light spectra and storage conditions to guggulsterone levels and antioxidant traits, and reports callus proliferation without plantlet regeneration in one study. Meristem, shoot apex, nodal, and axillary explants on MS media with cytokinins such as BAP or kinetin, sometimes combined with auxins like NAA or IAA and additives including ascorbic acid, citric acid, adenine sulfate, or activated charcoal, improved bud break and shoot number and length. One shoot-bud protocol reports induction near ninety percent at about three to three point five milligrams per liter BAP, and another reports about eighty two percent bud break with multiple shoots and rooting on half-strength MS. Immature zygotic embryos cultured with 2,4,5-T and kinetin produced somatic embryos that developed into plantlets and were transferred to the field. Overall, callus systems are emphasized for metabolite production and conservation, while organized explants and embryos are more directly associated with shoot multiplication and whole-plant recovery; outcomes may not be directly comparable because media, additives, and endpoints differ across studies.
In-vitro regeneration of guggul (A) Callus initiation from leaf (B) Enhanced callus growth.
Future research priorities
Despite significant advances in understanding biology, reproductive ecology and utilization of C. wightii, several critical knowledge gaps remain. Future research should focus on developing efficient propagation protocols, particularly for improving seed viability, germination and seedling establishment. Optimization of nursery management practices and cultivation techniques suitable for arid and semi-arid environments will be essential to support large-scale plantation programmes and reduce pressure on wild populations.
Comprehensive studies on population genetics, reproductive biology and landscape ecology are needed to better understand the distribution of genetic diversity across the species’ natural range. Attention should be given to the occurrence and distribution of sexual and apomictic lineages, their genetic structure and potential morphological differentiation. Such information will help identify genetically important populations, define conservation priorities and guide both in situ and ex situ conservation strategies aimed at preserving evolutionary potential.
Future conservation research should also evaluate natural regeneration dynamics in native habitats through long-term monitoring and the establishment of fenced control plots. Comparisons between protected and unprotected sites will improve understanding of the impacts of grazing, habitat disturbance and environmental factors on seedling recruitment and population recovery, thereby supporting evidence-based restoration programmes. Further research is needed to understand the impacts of global climate change on the ecology, population dynamics and conservation of C. wightii.
In addition, research should prioritize the development of scientifically validated resin tapping protocols, selection and domestication of elite genotypes and assessment of the species’ suitability for integration into agroforestry and dryland farming systems. Achieving these goals will require collaborative efforts among researchers, policymakers, conservation agencies and local communities to ensure the long-term conservation and sustainable utilization of this critically endangered medicinal species.
Conclusion and recommendations
Commiphora wightii is a medicinally and economically important shrub of the Indian subcontinent, valued for its therapeutic resin and extensive use in traditional medicine. However, overexploitation, unsustainable tapping practices, poor natural regeneration, reproductive constraints and habitat degradation have led to a drastic decline in natural populations, placing the species at serious risk of extinction.
Securing the future of C. wightii requires an integrated approach that combines habitat protection, restoration of degraded populations, sustainable resin harvesting and large-scale cultivation through improved propagation techniques. Strengthening both in situ and ex situ conservation, safeguarding genetically diverse populations and promoting scientifically validated tapping methods are essential for maintaining long-term population viability. Continued research, supportive policies and active community participation will be critical for effective conservation and sustainable utilization. Through coordinated efforts, it is possible to conserve these critically endangered species while supporting biodiversity, ecosystem resilience and rural livelihoods.
Supplementary material
The supplementary material for this article can be found at https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479262126100793.
Acknowledgements
Generative AI tools were used solely for improving language and readability. No AI tool was used for data analysis, result interpretation or drawing scientific conclusions.
Author contributions
All authors contributed significantly towards the final make-up of the paper. Writing – original draft: S.L.N.; writing – reviewing and editing: M.K.S., R.S., G.K., M.K.M. and M.D.. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Data Availability Statement
No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
Funding statement
The author declares that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
