We believe that Hyland, Lee, and Mills (Reference Hyland, Lee and Mills2015) introduced important considerations concerning the importance of mindfulness for research and practice in industrial and organizational (I-O) psychology, and we applaud their effort. We also feel that some equally important points were neglected or given scant attention. We amplify their introduction in three ways. We discuss (a) how construct confusion is common when new constructs are introduced and how paying attention to the type of meditation practice used to induce mindfulness will enhance construct clarity, (b) how using forms of meditation that employ physical movement and other activities to induce mindfulness expand the choices for intervention and training, and (c) how meditation and mindfulness provide a valuable bridge linking positive psychology and I-O psychology theory and practice.
Because mindfulness is a new construct, confusion concerning its meaning and relevance is to be expected. New constructs often produce questions about meaning, relevance, and importance. Ambiguity may be most common when new constructs come from disciplines other than psychology. The introduction of organizational culture, a construct created in sociology and anthropology, provides an example of this. When organizational culture was introduced, it raised questions and stimulated debates about its similarity to existing constructs such as organizational climate and psychological climate, the best means for operationalizing and measuring it, and its relationship to work outcomes (Denison, Reference Denison1996). Over time, the similarities and differences between these constructs became clear, each was integrated into more comprehensive models of the organization, and together they provided important advances in I-O psychology research and practice (Ostroff, Kinicki, & Muhammad, Reference Ostroff, Kinicki, Muhammad, Schmitt and Highhouse2013). We believe that confusion concerning the construct of mindfulness will abate as psychologists gain more experience with it.
Construct Confusion to Construct Clarity
Hyland et al. discussed mindfulness without explaining the types of meditation that produce this state of awareness. We feel that this omission can confound attempts to clarify the construct and create operational definitions. Hundreds of meditation techniques exist, but they fall broadly into three types: focused attention, open awareness, and guided intention forms of meditation (e.g., Sedlmeier et al., Reference Sedlmeier, Eberth, Schwarz, Zimmermann, Haarig, Jaeger and Kunze2012). Hyland et al. conflated two of these, focused attention and open awareness, to represent mindfulness, when in fact these represent two different approaches to meditation that produce different types of awareness and outcomes. Focused attention meditation uses various targets to train attention. These targets often include some part of the body, such as the breath or lower abdomen. Focused attention meditation is frequently used as a preliminary practice to produce sufficient mental stability to enable practice of other, more challenging forms of meditation. Despite differences in national and religious origin and purpose, all three approaches to meditation share similarities (Kohn, Reference Kohn2008), but their outcomes and causal mechanisms may vary (Eberth & Sedlmeier, Reference Eberth and Sedlmeier2012; Sedlmeier et al., Reference Sedlmeier, Eberth, Schwarz, Zimmermann, Haarig, Jaeger and Kunze2012).
Rather than narrow the focus of one's attention, open awareness meditation expands attention to focus simultaneously, nonjudgmentally, and nonanalytically on physical sensations, thoughts, feelings, and other internal and external stimuli that arise in the present moment. This yields a state of open awareness (mindfulness) in which one pays attention to all that enters one's perceptual field. Variations of this type of meditation have been most studied in research, and they are often conflated with the mindful state of awareness that the meditation produces.
Guided intention forms of meditation yoke attention and awareness to intention without attaching strongly to the desired goal or outcome. Resolving the contradiction between having an intention and simultaneously not attaching to it is a major challenge of this approach and yields some of its most important benefits. Loving-kindness meditation is an example, where the meditator employs focused attention to hold loosely to the goal of evoking and enhancing positive emotions and compassion toward oneself and others.
Researchers should choose the meditation method that matches their goals and should be explicit about the meditation method they are studying and the population in which they are studying it. For example, focused attention and open awareness approaches to meditation may have different impacts on attention regulation and other aspects of cognition, and neither may be as successful in cultivating positive emotions as guided intention forms of meditation such as those that emphasize loving kindness (Lutz, Slagter, Dunne, & Davidson, Reference Lutz, Slagter, Dunne and Davidson2008). These differential effects result because meditation approaches may have different causal mechanisms (Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freedman, Reference Shapiro, Carlson, Astin and Freedman2006) that influence different areas of the brain (Cahn & Polich, Reference Cahn and Polich2006) and other aspects of neurobiology and physiology (Esch, Reference Esch, Schmidt and Wallach2014), which in turn influence distal outcomes such as expressions of affect (Davidson & Lutz, Reference Davidson and Lutz2008). Moreover, meditation effects may be stronger in experienced meditators compared with novices, which has important implications for research that examines meditation and mindfulness using short-term interventions and training with meditation-naïve participants (Lutz, Brefczynski-Lewis, Johnstone, & Davidson, Reference Lutz, Brefczynski-Lewis, Johnstone and Davidson2008).
Moving Meditation
The second point we wish to make is that most research studies on mindfulness employ physically static, usually seated, forms of meditation. Moving meditation practices focus on integration of body movements with the three types of meditation described above. For example, one may use focused attention or open awareness while performing different physical movements. Moving forms of meditation have been used for millennia in Asia to increase longevity and enhance physical and mental well-being, for example, Chinese practices associated with Daoism (Kohn, Reference Kohn1989, Reference Kohn2006). Moving forms of meditation are often more accessible to those who find it difficult to sit still for the long periods of time needed in seated forms of meditation.
Moving meditation practices that have received growing research attention include taiji quan (tai chi) and qigong, both of which are ancient Chinese systems of psychophysiological self-regulation used to produce physical and mental health outcomes comparable with those produced by seated forms of meditation. Mental health outcomes important in the workplace include reduction of depression and anxiety (Chen et al., Reference Chen, Berger, Manheimer, Forde, Magidson, Dachman and Lejuez2012) and improved cognitive function (Mortimer et al., Reference Mortimer, Ding, Borenstein, DeCarli, Guo, Wu and Chu2012). Occupational health outcomes include enhanced immune system response (Morgan, Irwin, Chung, & Wang, Reference Morgan, Irwin, Chung and Wang2014), reduction in the stress-related hormones of cortisol and inflammatory cytokines (Campo et al., Reference Campo, Light, O'Conner, Nakamura, Lipshitz, LaStayo and Kinney2015), and improved stress management (Wang et al., Reference Wang, Chan, Ho, Chan, Ng and Chan2014). Other work-related outcomes include improved daily function and quality of life associated with management of chronic diseases such as cancer (Zeng, Luo, Xie, Huang, & Cheng, Reference Zeng, Luo, Xie, Huang and Cheng2014), Parkinson's disease (Ni, Liu, Lu, Shi, & Guo, Reference Ni, Liu, Lu, Shi and Guo2014), and fibromyalgia (Langhorst, Klose, Dobos, Bernardy, & Haüser, Reference Langhorst, Klose, Dobos, Bernardy and Haüser2013); improvement in head, neck, and shoulder mobility injuries (Fong et al., Reference Fong, Ng, Lee, Pang, Luk, Chung and Masters2015); and enhanced pulmonary function and exercise capacity (Niu, He, Luo, & Hu, Reference Niu, He, Luo and Hu2014). Moving forms of meditation, because of their impact on multiple physiological systems, may improve a wider range of work-related outcomes than seated forms of meditation, but this is only speculation.
Sitting and moving forms of meditation may be usefully combined as is done with the use of open awareness meditation and yoga in mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), one of the most studied and effective mindfulness interventions (Sedlmeier et al., Reference Sedlmeier, Eberth, Schwarz, Zimmermann, Haarig, Jaeger and Kunze2012). Immersive interventions create living environments that combine sitting and moving meditation with other activities, such as cooking and walks in nature, to induce deep states of mindfulness (Davis & Kohn, Reference Davis and Kohn2009). Sitting and moving meditation techniques may also be combined to augment and deepen traditional approaches to education and training in I-O psychology (Davis, Reference Davis2013).
Meditation, Mindfulness, and Positive Organizations
Our third aim is to highlight the link between positive psychology and I-O psychology and the role that meditation and mindfulness may play in strengthening this connection. Positive psychology focuses on human strengths and flourishing. Processes and outcomes studied by positive psychologists that are potentially relevant to I-O psychology include resilience when confronted by adversity and failure; positive cognitions and attitudes such as optimism, hope, and information processing; positive affect, positive emotions, and emotional self-regulation; character strengths and values, meaningfulness, wisdom, and transcendence; and prosocial motivation, gratitude, forgiveness, and compassion (Lopez, Pedrotti, & Snyder, Reference Lopez, Pedrotti and Snyder2015). Concepts from positive psychology are being widely adapted to the study of organizations (Cameron & Spreitzer, Reference Cameron and Spreitzer2013).
Meditation and mindfulness play an important role in many of the processes and outcomes studied in positive psychology that may be relevant to the workplace (Davis, Reference Davis and Kohn2011). For example, affective dispositions and emotions are important in organizations (Brief & Weiss, Reference Brief and Weiss2002) as is the ability to monitor and regulate one's emotions (Joseph & Newman, Reference Joseph and Newman2010). Positive psychologists have provided a possible causal mechanism to explain some of these workplace effects. Positive affect and emotions can create an expanding spiral of positive influence that broadens and builds personal resources that may be used to support desired actions, such as interactions with customers and coworkers (Fredrickson, Reference Fredrickson2001). Meditation and mindfulness are associated with enhanced self-monitoring of emotions, expression of positive emotions, reduced negative emotions, and emotional regulation, and meditation and mindfulness may moderate the relationships between these variables and other organizational outcomes (Eberth & Sedlmeier, Reference Eberth and Sedlmeier2012).
A meta-analysis of kindness-based meditations, which are intended to cultivate compassion and prosocial motivation, shows consistent enhancement of positive emotions (Galante, Galante, Bekkers, & Gallacher, Reference Galante, Galante, Bekkers and Gallacher2014). In one example, participants from an information technology organization that practiced loving-kindness meditation increased their daily experience of positive emotions, and these, in turn, produced increases in a wide variety of personal resources including mindfulness and social support, providing evidence for the “build” portion of the broaden and build model of positive emotions (Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek, & Finkel, Reference Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek and Finkel2008). This result highlights the manner in which loving-kindness meditation may be used to cultivate the emotional and personal resources needed to produce compassionate organizations (Dutton, Worline, Frost, & Lilius, Reference Dutton, Worline, Frost and Lilius2006).
Meditation and mindfulness provide an important means to foster human flourishing. Centuries of experience with their use provide anecdotal evidence that they enhance many aspects of life. Researchers are beginning to document these outcomes, and I-O psychologists have much to gain from considering their contribution to work life. Personal experience with each of these meditation techniques and the states of awareness they produce will deepen the efforts of I-O psychologists to study and understand them. Individuals, teams, and organizations will flourish as a result.
%20-%20https://sketch.com%20--%3e%3ctitle%3e3ECBBF50-FD08-412A-943D-2CFC5E025A16%3c/title%3e%3cdesc%3eCreated%20with%20sketchtool.%3c/desc%3e%3cg%20id='Stylesheet'%20stroke='none'%20stroke-width='1'%20fill='none'%20fill-rule='evenodd'%3e%3cg%20transform='translate(-926.000000,%20-668.000000)'%20id='BUTTONS'%3e%3cg%20transform='translate(100.000000,%20597.000000)'%3e%3cg%20id='BTN-/-RIGHTS'%20transform='translate(816.000000,%2065.000000)'%3e%3cg%20id='ICON-/-Rights'%20transform='translate(10.000000,%206.000000)'%3e%3cpath%20d='M13.5752841,0%20L1.34943182,0%20C0.59375,0%200,0.586666667%200,1.33333333%20L0,22.6666667%20C0,23.4133333%200.620738636,24%201.34943182,24%20L17.6505682,24%20C18.40625,24%2019,23.3866667%2019,22.6666667%20L19,5.36%20L13.5752841,0%20Z%20M13.5752841,1.89333333%20L17.0838068,5.36%20L13.5752841,5.36%20L13.5752841,1.89333333%20Z%20M1.34943182,22.6666667%20L1.34943182,1.33333333%20L12.1988636,1.33333333%20L12.1988636,5.36%20C12.1988636,6.10666667%2012.7926136,6.69333333%2013.5482955,6.69333333%20L17.6235795,6.69333333%20L17.6505682,22.6666667%20L1.34943182,22.6666667%20Z'%20id='Shape'%20fill='%23595959'%20fill-rule='nonzero'%3e%3c/path%3e%3ccircle%20id='Oval'%20stroke='%23595959'%20stroke-width='1.5'%20fill='%23595959'%20cx='9.5'%20cy='13.5355339'%20r='5.5'%3e%3c/circle%3e%3cpolyline%20id='Path-2'%20stroke='%23FFFFFF'%20stroke-width='1.5'%20transform='translate(9.500000,%2013.035534)%20rotate(45.000000)%20translate(-9.500000,%20-13.035534)%20'%20points='8%2016.0355339%2011%2016.0355339%2011%2010.0355339'%3e%3c/polyline%3e%3c/g%3e%3c/g%3e%3c/g%3e%3c/g%3e%3c/g%3e%3c/svg%3e)
We believe that Hyland, Lee, and Mills (Reference Hyland, Lee and Mills2015) introduced important considerations concerning the importance of mindfulness for research and practice in industrial and organizational (I-O) psychology, and we applaud their effort. We also feel that some equally important points were neglected or given scant attention. We amplify their introduction in three ways. We discuss (a) how construct confusion is common when new constructs are introduced and how paying attention to the type of meditation practice used to induce mindfulness will enhance construct clarity, (b) how using forms of meditation that employ physical movement and other activities to induce mindfulness expand the choices for intervention and training, and (c) how meditation and mindfulness provide a valuable bridge linking positive psychology and I-O psychology theory and practice.
Because mindfulness is a new construct, confusion concerning its meaning and relevance is to be expected. New constructs often produce questions about meaning, relevance, and importance. Ambiguity may be most common when new constructs come from disciplines other than psychology. The introduction of organizational culture, a construct created in sociology and anthropology, provides an example of this. When organizational culture was introduced, it raised questions and stimulated debates about its similarity to existing constructs such as organizational climate and psychological climate, the best means for operationalizing and measuring it, and its relationship to work outcomes (Denison, Reference Denison1996). Over time, the similarities and differences between these constructs became clear, each was integrated into more comprehensive models of the organization, and together they provided important advances in I-O psychology research and practice (Ostroff, Kinicki, & Muhammad, Reference Ostroff, Kinicki, Muhammad, Schmitt and Highhouse2013). We believe that confusion concerning the construct of mindfulness will abate as psychologists gain more experience with it.
Construct Confusion to Construct Clarity
Hyland et al. discussed mindfulness without explaining the types of meditation that produce this state of awareness. We feel that this omission can confound attempts to clarify the construct and create operational definitions. Hundreds of meditation techniques exist, but they fall broadly into three types: focused attention, open awareness, and guided intention forms of meditation (e.g., Sedlmeier et al., Reference Sedlmeier, Eberth, Schwarz, Zimmermann, Haarig, Jaeger and Kunze2012). Hyland et al. conflated two of these, focused attention and open awareness, to represent mindfulness, when in fact these represent two different approaches to meditation that produce different types of awareness and outcomes. Focused attention meditation uses various targets to train attention. These targets often include some part of the body, such as the breath or lower abdomen. Focused attention meditation is frequently used as a preliminary practice to produce sufficient mental stability to enable practice of other, more challenging forms of meditation. Despite differences in national and religious origin and purpose, all three approaches to meditation share similarities (Kohn, Reference Kohn2008), but their outcomes and causal mechanisms may vary (Eberth & Sedlmeier, Reference Eberth and Sedlmeier2012; Sedlmeier et al., Reference Sedlmeier, Eberth, Schwarz, Zimmermann, Haarig, Jaeger and Kunze2012).
Rather than narrow the focus of one's attention, open awareness meditation expands attention to focus simultaneously, nonjudgmentally, and nonanalytically on physical sensations, thoughts, feelings, and other internal and external stimuli that arise in the present moment. This yields a state of open awareness (mindfulness) in which one pays attention to all that enters one's perceptual field. Variations of this type of meditation have been most studied in research, and they are often conflated with the mindful state of awareness that the meditation produces.
Guided intention forms of meditation yoke attention and awareness to intention without attaching strongly to the desired goal or outcome. Resolving the contradiction between having an intention and simultaneously not attaching to it is a major challenge of this approach and yields some of its most important benefits. Loving-kindness meditation is an example, where the meditator employs focused attention to hold loosely to the goal of evoking and enhancing positive emotions and compassion toward oneself and others.
Researchers should choose the meditation method that matches their goals and should be explicit about the meditation method they are studying and the population in which they are studying it. For example, focused attention and open awareness approaches to meditation may have different impacts on attention regulation and other aspects of cognition, and neither may be as successful in cultivating positive emotions as guided intention forms of meditation such as those that emphasize loving kindness (Lutz, Slagter, Dunne, & Davidson, Reference Lutz, Slagter, Dunne and Davidson2008). These differential effects result because meditation approaches may have different causal mechanisms (Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freedman, Reference Shapiro, Carlson, Astin and Freedman2006) that influence different areas of the brain (Cahn & Polich, Reference Cahn and Polich2006) and other aspects of neurobiology and physiology (Esch, Reference Esch, Schmidt and Wallach2014), which in turn influence distal outcomes such as expressions of affect (Davidson & Lutz, Reference Davidson and Lutz2008). Moreover, meditation effects may be stronger in experienced meditators compared with novices, which has important implications for research that examines meditation and mindfulness using short-term interventions and training with meditation-naïve participants (Lutz, Brefczynski-Lewis, Johnstone, & Davidson, Reference Lutz, Brefczynski-Lewis, Johnstone and Davidson2008).
Moving Meditation
The second point we wish to make is that most research studies on mindfulness employ physically static, usually seated, forms of meditation. Moving meditation practices focus on integration of body movements with the three types of meditation described above. For example, one may use focused attention or open awareness while performing different physical movements. Moving forms of meditation have been used for millennia in Asia to increase longevity and enhance physical and mental well-being, for example, Chinese practices associated with Daoism (Kohn, Reference Kohn1989, Reference Kohn2006). Moving forms of meditation are often more accessible to those who find it difficult to sit still for the long periods of time needed in seated forms of meditation.
Moving meditation practices that have received growing research attention include taiji quan (tai chi) and qigong, both of which are ancient Chinese systems of psychophysiological self-regulation used to produce physical and mental health outcomes comparable with those produced by seated forms of meditation. Mental health outcomes important in the workplace include reduction of depression and anxiety (Chen et al., Reference Chen, Berger, Manheimer, Forde, Magidson, Dachman and Lejuez2012) and improved cognitive function (Mortimer et al., Reference Mortimer, Ding, Borenstein, DeCarli, Guo, Wu and Chu2012). Occupational health outcomes include enhanced immune system response (Morgan, Irwin, Chung, & Wang, Reference Morgan, Irwin, Chung and Wang2014), reduction in the stress-related hormones of cortisol and inflammatory cytokines (Campo et al., Reference Campo, Light, O'Conner, Nakamura, Lipshitz, LaStayo and Kinney2015), and improved stress management (Wang et al., Reference Wang, Chan, Ho, Chan, Ng and Chan2014). Other work-related outcomes include improved daily function and quality of life associated with management of chronic diseases such as cancer (Zeng, Luo, Xie, Huang, & Cheng, Reference Zeng, Luo, Xie, Huang and Cheng2014), Parkinson's disease (Ni, Liu, Lu, Shi, & Guo, Reference Ni, Liu, Lu, Shi and Guo2014), and fibromyalgia (Langhorst, Klose, Dobos, Bernardy, & Haüser, Reference Langhorst, Klose, Dobos, Bernardy and Haüser2013); improvement in head, neck, and shoulder mobility injuries (Fong et al., Reference Fong, Ng, Lee, Pang, Luk, Chung and Masters2015); and enhanced pulmonary function and exercise capacity (Niu, He, Luo, & Hu, Reference Niu, He, Luo and Hu2014). Moving forms of meditation, because of their impact on multiple physiological systems, may improve a wider range of work-related outcomes than seated forms of meditation, but this is only speculation.
Sitting and moving forms of meditation may be usefully combined as is done with the use of open awareness meditation and yoga in mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), one of the most studied and effective mindfulness interventions (Sedlmeier et al., Reference Sedlmeier, Eberth, Schwarz, Zimmermann, Haarig, Jaeger and Kunze2012). Immersive interventions create living environments that combine sitting and moving meditation with other activities, such as cooking and walks in nature, to induce deep states of mindfulness (Davis & Kohn, Reference Davis and Kohn2009). Sitting and moving meditation techniques may also be combined to augment and deepen traditional approaches to education and training in I-O psychology (Davis, Reference Davis2013).
Meditation, Mindfulness, and Positive Organizations
Our third aim is to highlight the link between positive psychology and I-O psychology and the role that meditation and mindfulness may play in strengthening this connection. Positive psychology focuses on human strengths and flourishing. Processes and outcomes studied by positive psychologists that are potentially relevant to I-O psychology include resilience when confronted by adversity and failure; positive cognitions and attitudes such as optimism, hope, and information processing; positive affect, positive emotions, and emotional self-regulation; character strengths and values, meaningfulness, wisdom, and transcendence; and prosocial motivation, gratitude, forgiveness, and compassion (Lopez, Pedrotti, & Snyder, Reference Lopez, Pedrotti and Snyder2015). Concepts from positive psychology are being widely adapted to the study of organizations (Cameron & Spreitzer, Reference Cameron and Spreitzer2013).
Meditation and mindfulness play an important role in many of the processes and outcomes studied in positive psychology that may be relevant to the workplace (Davis, Reference Davis and Kohn2011). For example, affective dispositions and emotions are important in organizations (Brief & Weiss, Reference Brief and Weiss2002) as is the ability to monitor and regulate one's emotions (Joseph & Newman, Reference Joseph and Newman2010). Positive psychologists have provided a possible causal mechanism to explain some of these workplace effects. Positive affect and emotions can create an expanding spiral of positive influence that broadens and builds personal resources that may be used to support desired actions, such as interactions with customers and coworkers (Fredrickson, Reference Fredrickson2001). Meditation and mindfulness are associated with enhanced self-monitoring of emotions, expression of positive emotions, reduced negative emotions, and emotional regulation, and meditation and mindfulness may moderate the relationships between these variables and other organizational outcomes (Eberth & Sedlmeier, Reference Eberth and Sedlmeier2012).
A meta-analysis of kindness-based meditations, which are intended to cultivate compassion and prosocial motivation, shows consistent enhancement of positive emotions (Galante, Galante, Bekkers, & Gallacher, Reference Galante, Galante, Bekkers and Gallacher2014). In one example, participants from an information technology organization that practiced loving-kindness meditation increased their daily experience of positive emotions, and these, in turn, produced increases in a wide variety of personal resources including mindfulness and social support, providing evidence for the “build” portion of the broaden and build model of positive emotions (Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek, & Finkel, Reference Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek and Finkel2008). This result highlights the manner in which loving-kindness meditation may be used to cultivate the emotional and personal resources needed to produce compassionate organizations (Dutton, Worline, Frost, & Lilius, Reference Dutton, Worline, Frost and Lilius2006).
Meditation and mindfulness provide an important means to foster human flourishing. Centuries of experience with their use provide anecdotal evidence that they enhance many aspects of life. Researchers are beginning to document these outcomes, and I-O psychologists have much to gain from considering their contribution to work life. Personal experience with each of these meditation techniques and the states of awareness they produce will deepen the efforts of I-O psychologists to study and understand them. Individuals, teams, and organizations will flourish as a result.