2.1. The Lee–Carter model

Lee and Carter (Reference Lee and Carter1992) model logarithmic death rates for a life aged x in year t belonging to population i as

(1)$$\log m_{x, t}^i = \alpha_x^i + \beta_x^i \kappa_t^i + \varepsilon_{x, t}^i,\; $$

with age-specific base mortality level $\alpha _x^i$, period effect $\kappa _t^i$ related to the general development over time, and age effect $\beta _x^i$ describing the impact of this development on different ages. The error terms $\varepsilon _{x, t}^i$ are assumed to be independent, homoskedastic, and normally distributed. In the following, we suppress the dependence on the population i in our notation.

The model (1) is calibrated via singular value decomposition. The constraints

(2)$$\sum_{x = x_1}^{x_A} \beta_x = 1,\; \kappa_{t_1} = 0$$

are imposed to make its parameters identifiable. Forecasts of future mortality rates are obtained by choosing a suitable model for the estimated period effects $( \hat {\kappa }_t) _{t\in {\cal T}}$, usually for their first differences $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_t\, \colon = \hat {\kappa }_t - \hat {\kappa }_{t-1}$.

The choice of such a time series model depends on its compatibility with observed data but also on the expectations and preferences of the modeler. In the following, we present several possibilities for this choice. An overview is given in Table 1.

Table 1.

Overview of the different modeling approaches for $\hat {\kappa }_t$

2.2. Forecasting the period effect with an ARIMA model

The simplest and most often used approach is to model $( \hat {\kappa }_t) _{t\in {\cal T}}$ as a random walk with drift (RWD), i.e.,

(3)$$\Delta\hat{\kappa}_{t} = e_{t} \; {\rm with } \; e_{t} \sim {\cal N}\left(\mu,\; \sigma^2\right) \; {\rm i.i.d.}$$

This yields explicit formulae for both point and interval forecasts of the period effect, which are then inserted into (1) to obtain death rate forecasts. We refer to Schnürch et al. (Reference Schnürch, Kleinow, Korn and Wagner2022), who provide details on the procedure and demonstrate that a mortality shock in the forecast jump-off year influences RWD point forecasts and a mortality shock at any time in the calibration data set influences interval forecasts.

Although the RWD has been demonstrated to work quite well in the literature [Lee and Carter (Reference Lee and Carter1992); Tuljapurkar et al. (Reference Tuljapurkar, Li and Boe2000)], it has a few drawbacks, for example, its strong dependence on $\hat {\kappa }_{t_Y}$, the period effect in the jump-off year. A natural idea is to replace the RWD by a general autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model, which potentially places less weight on the last period effect and also yields a better fit. ARIMA models have three hyperparameters, the autoregressive order p, the order of integration d, and the moving average order q, which we choose by the auto.arima algorithm: for each population, we consider all ARIMA(p, d, q) process specifications with p ≤ 5, d ≤ 1 and q ≤ 5 and select the one which strikes the best balance between low calibration error and parsimony. We refer to Hyndman and Khandakar (Reference Hyndman and Khandakar2008, Section 3) for a detailed description of the algorithm as well as the R [R Core Team (2019)] implementation we use. Similarly as for an RWD, a mortality shock in the calibration data set of an ARIMA(p, d, q) model will persist in its forecasts if p > 0 or d > 0, which is the case for all ARIMA models the auto.arima algorithm has returned in our numerical experiments.

2.3. Dealing with mortality shocks in an ARIMA setting

In this section, we describe six alternative methods to explicitly deal with outliers in the period effect.

One way of addressing the occurrence of mortality shocks is to reduce or completely remove their effect on calibration, so that the model is trained with a focus on “normal” data. Therefore, it should only be used to make forecasts conditional on the assumption that no major mortality shocks will occur in the future or if the possibility of such shocks is not relevant for the considered application.

Replacing by a best estimate

The most radical way of reducing the effect of mortality shocks on model calibration is to exclude years in which they occur from the data, which has a similar effect as replacing the observations in these years by best estimates based on shock-free data. For the example of COVID-19, we calibrate an LC model on data up to 2019, obtain forecasts for 2020 by an RWD and recalibrate the model on the data including these 2020 forecasts. This approach has been investigated and compared to the RWD without data exclusion by Schnürch et al. (Reference Schnürch, Kleinow, Korn and Wagner2022). It obviously prevents the excluded mortality shock from influencing mortality forecasts in any way.

Intervention model

Alternatively, one can apply an intervention model to the period effect time series, as Lee and Carter (Reference Lee and Carter1992) have done to diminish the influence of the 1918 pandemic. This means that a binary dummy is added to the RWD model (3), yielding

(4)$$\Delta\hat{\kappa}_{t} = \varphi{1}_{t = t^{\rm out}} + e_{t},\; $$

where $t^{\rm out}\, \colon = {\rm argmax}_{t = t_2, \ldots , t_Y} \Delta \hat {\kappa }_t$ is the year with the largest (upward) mortality shock and the maximum likelihood estimate for φ is $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_{t^{\rm out}} - \hat {\mu }$. For the calibration period t ∈ {1991, …, 2020}, we usually get t ^out = 2020 so that the parameter φ absorbs the mortality shock induced by the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, this intervention model can be expected to behave very similarly to our best estimate approach which directly ignores 2020. In particular, it only allows the mortality shock to influence forecasts via the α _x and β _x parameters, which are calibrated on the original data including the shock. However, changes in these parameters in response to a COVID-19-type shock are expected to be small [Schnürch et al. (Reference Schnürch, Kleinow, Korn and Wagner2022), Proposition 1].

More sophisticated methods are available, including more general intervention models [Box and Tiao (Reference Box and Tiao1975)] or techniques from time series outlier detection and adjustment [Li and Chan (Reference Li and Chan2005, Reference Li and Chan2007)]. However, we restrict our attention to the best estimate replacement and the simple intervention model (4) as we deem these sufficient to illustrate the consequences of excluding mortality shocks from the model calibration.

Another way of dealing with mortality shocks is to include them in the calibration data and adapt the model accordingly. More precisely, we adjust the distribution assumption.

Lognormal distribution

A natural idea is to simply replace the normal distribution ${\cal N}( 0,\; \sigma ^2)$ in (3) by some asymmetric, unimodal distribution with heavier upper tail. There are several distributions with this property in the literature. We choose the lognormal distribution, which is known to be suitable for a lot of applications in finance such as modeling stock prices or interest rates.

As the lognormal distribution is only supported on the positive real line and $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_t$ is usually negative for many t, some data transformation is necessary. We apply

(5)$$\Delta\hat{\kappa}_t \mapsto \Delta\hat{\kappa}_t + \left\vert \min\limits_{\tilde{t} = t_2, \ldots, t_Y} \Delta\hat{\kappa}_{\tilde{t}} \right\vert + \lambda \; {\rm for} \; t = t_2,\; \ldots,\; t_Y$$

with λ > 0. The entire approach is equivalent to a Box–Cox transformation [Box and Cox (Reference Box and Cox1964)] with non-zero shift parameter $\left \vert \min \limits _{\tilde {t} = t_2, \ldots , t_Y} \Delta \hat {\kappa }_{\tilde {t}} \right \vert + \lambda$.

We calibrate λ along with the two parameters of the lognormal distribution by maximum likelihood estimation. With the calibrated model, we perform Monte Carlo simulation (with 10⁴ paths) and apply the inverse of (5) to obtain period effect increment forecasts, which are then converted into death rate forecasts. As the forecast for $\hat {\kappa }_{t_Y + 1}$ is based on the unmodified value of $\hat {\kappa }_{t_Y}$, a shock to the period effect in the jump-off year will persist in forecasts.

Of course, it is also possible to change the distribution assumption so as to explicitly account for mortality shocks. We consider three methods from the literature, which are all based on the idea that there are two different underlying states governing mortality, a normal state and a shock state. This idea is implemented more or less directly.

Peaks-over-threshold

Chen and Cummins (Reference Chen and Cummins2010) propose to apply the peaks-over-threshold (POT) method from extreme value theory to the first differenced period effect $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_t$, assuming that it follows a two-component mixture distribution. More precisely, a threshold $u\in \mathbb{R}$ is specified below which $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_t$ is modeled by a normal distribution, whereas it is modeled by a generalized Pareto distribution (GPD) above this threshold. We denote this by

(6)$$\eqalign{\Delta\hat{\kappa}_t \mid \Delta\hat{\kappa}_t < u & \sim {\cal N}\left(\mu,\; \sigma^2\right),\; \cr \Delta\hat{\kappa}_t \mid \Delta\hat{\kappa}_t \geq u & \sim G\left(\xi,\; \zeta\right),\; }$$

where G(ξ, ζ) is a GPD with shape parameter $\xi \in \mathbb{R}$ and scaling parameter ζ > 0. The period effect follows an RWD during normal times, but the model allows for the fact that shocks can occur and lead to non-normal behavior by approximating the upper tail of the distribution with a GPD. This is justified by the Pickands–Balkema–de Haan theorem from extreme value theory [Balkema and de Haan (Reference Balkema and de Haan1974); Pickands (Reference Pickands1975)]. Similar mixture models have been successfully applied both on synthetic [Mendes and Lopes (Reference Mendes and Lopes2004)] and on real data [stock index returns, Behrens et al. (Reference Behrens, Lopes and Gamerman2004)].

A critical aspect of this method is the choice of the threshold u, which should not be too large so that the GPD parameters are calibrated on sufficiently many observations, but it should also not be too small so that only a minor share of the observations falls in the non-normal part of the distribution. Many procedures to estimate the threshold have been proposed in the literature [Scarrott and MacDonald (Reference Scarrott and MacDonald2012)]. Here, we follow Chen and Cummins (Reference Chen and Cummins2010); Mendes and Lopes (Reference Mendes and Lopes2004) and calculate the profile likelihood

(7)$${\cal L}_p( u) = \sup_{\mu, \sigma, \xi, \zeta} {\cal L}\left(\mu,\; \sigma,\; \xi,\; \zeta;\; u \right),\; $$

where ${\cal L}$ denotes the likelihood function of model (6). We try all values $u \in \{ q_{85}( \Delta \hat {\kappa }_t) ,\; q_{86}( \Delta \hat {\kappa }_t) ,\; \ldots ,\; q_{95}( \Delta \hat {\kappa }_t) \}$, where $q_z( \Delta \hat {\kappa }_t)$ denotes the empirical $z\%$ quantile of $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_t$, and we choose u to maximize ${\cal L}_p( u)$. Then, we calibrate the parameters μ, σ, ξ, and ζ conditionally on the fixed u by penalized maximum likelihood estimation. The likelihood is penalized as proposed by Coles and Dixon (Reference Coles and Dixon1999) in order to stabilize the calibration.Footnote ² We refer to Chen and Cummins (Reference Chen and Cummins2010) and section 2.4 below for further details on the calibration algorithm. Chen and Cummins (Reference Chen and Cummins2010) also describe how to simulate from their model, which we use to obtain point and interval death rate forecasts by Monte Carlo simulation (with 10⁶ paths). In particular, analogously to the lognormal distribution approach, forecasts for $\hat {\kappa }_{t_Y + 1}$ are based on the unmodified value of $\hat {\kappa }_{t_Y}$ and a shock to the period effect in the jump-off year t _Y will persist in forecasts.

Jump model

Another possibility to account for shocks is to allow for transitory mortality jumps. Several applications of jumps have been investigated in the literature both on discrete-time and continuous-time mortality models, see Regis and Jevtić (Reference Regis and Jevtić2022) for a recent overview, which also includes multi-population models. Here, we follow Chen and Cox (Reference Chen and Cox2009), who propose

(8)$$\Delta\hat{\kappa}_t = e_{t} + W_{t} N_{t} - W_{t-1} N_{t-1},\; $$

where $e_t\sim {\cal N}( \mu ,\; \sigma ^2)$ i.i.d., the jump severities W _t follow i.i.d. ${\cal N}( m,\; s^2)$ distributions and N _t are i.i.d. Bernoulli random variables with jump probability p ∈ (0, 1), i.e., N _t = 1 means there is a jump in mortality at time t and N _t = 0 means there is none. Independence is assumed between e _t, W _t, and N _t. It is easy to see that $\hat {\kappa }_t$ follows an RWD as long as there is no jump and that it returns to this RWD after a jump has taken place, unless N _t = N _t−1 = 1. This latter case corresponds to two consecutive jumps or one longer-lasting jump and by (8) leads to an increase in volatility of $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_t$ from $\sqrt {\sigma ^2 + s^2}$ to $\sqrt {\sigma ^2 + 2s^2}$.

Although it is possible for longer-lasting shocks to occur under the jump model, its conceptual idea is to model transitory shock events which only influence mortality for one time period (one year). In particular, we refrain from modeling a serial correlation of N _t, i.e., a non-trivial dependence structure of shock occurrence over time.

In contrast to the POT model, we do not only consider the possibility of upward jumps here, as we allow m ≤ 0. However, we expect that m > 0 for most populations because transitory mortality jumps usually move in an upward direction, whereas mortality improvements often play out over a longer time period.

The model is calibrated by conditional maximum likelihood estimation as described by Chen and Cox (Reference Chen and Cox2009). Point and interval forecasts are obtained via Monte Carlo simulation (with J = 10⁶ paths) from (8). Estimates for the realized values of the unobservable $W_{t_Y}$ and $N_{t_Y}$ must be available in order to obtain the first forecast $\hat {\kappa }_{t_Y + 1}$. We propose the following approach to calculate these estimates: Set $N_{t_Y}^a\, \colon = 1$ and

(9)$$W_{t_Y}^a\, \colon = \mathbb{E}\left(W_{t_Y} \vert \Delta\hat{\kappa}_{t_Y} \right)$$

on Monte Carlo paths a = 1, …, πJ, where

(10)$$\pi\, \colon = \mathbb{P}\left(N_{t_Y} = 1 \vert \Delta\hat{\kappa}_{t_Y} \right)$$

and πJ is rounded to the nearest integer. On the remaining Monte Carlo paths, a = πJ + 1, …, J, set $N_{t_Y}^a\, \colon = 0$ and the value of $W_{t_Y}^a$ does not matter. Applying Bayes’ theorem to (10), we obtain

(11)$$\eqalign{\pi & = {\,f\left(\Delta \hat{\kappa}_{t_Y} \vert N_{t_Y} = 1\right)\cdot \mathbb{P}\left(N_{t_Y} = 1\right)\over f\left(\Delta\hat{\kappa}_{t_Y}\right)} \cr & = {\left(( 1-p) \cdot\phi_{\mu + m, \sigma^2 + s^2}( \Delta \hat{\kappa}_{t_Y}) + p\cdot\phi_{\mu, \sigma^2 + 2s^2}( \Delta \hat{\kappa}_{t_Y}) \right)\cdot p\over f\left(\hat{\kappa}_{t_Y}\right)},\; }$$

where f denotes the (conditional) density function of $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_{t_Y}$ and ϕ denotes the normal probability density function. The expected jump size (9) is calculated by numerical integration of $w\mapsto w\cdot f_{W}( w \vert \Delta \hat {\kappa }_{t_Y})$, where the density f _W is obtained analogously to (11).

The described procedure aims at reverting any mortality shock at time t _Y before using it as the forecast jump-off year, which should diminish the persistence of shocks in forecasts of the jump model.

Regime switching

We consider the regime switching (RS) approach proposed by Milidonis et al. (Reference Milidonis, Lin and Cox2011). Its basic assumption is that the distribution of $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_t$ is governed by an unobservable binary Markov process ρ _t with values in {1, 2}. We expect that there will be one regime corresponding to normal mortality development and another regime corresponding to short periods of shock events. This would be in line with the findings of Lemoine (Reference Lemoine2015) on French data, who detect a high-volatility regime after the Second World War and a low-volatility regime on more recent data.

We initialize parameters before model calibration in such a way that state 1 should correspond to the normal regime and state 2 should correspond to the shock regime with higher expected drift of $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_t$ or significantly higher volatility.Footnote ³ More precisely, we assume

(12)$$\Delta\hat{\kappa}_t = \left\{\matrix{ e_t^1 \sim {\cal N}\left(\mu,\; \sigma^2\right),\; {\rm i.i.d. \;if\; } \rho_t = 1,\; \hfill \cr e_t^2 \sim {\cal N}\left(m,\; s^2\right),\; {\rm i.i.d. \;if \;} \rho_t = 2,\; \hfill }\right.$$

where $e_t^1$ and $e_t^2$ are independent. Transition between the two regimes is described by the right stochastic matrix

(13)$$\left(\matrix{\,p_{11} & p_{12} \cr p_{21} & p_{22} }\right),\; $$

where $p_{jk}\, \colon = \mathbb{P}( \rho _{t + 1} = k \mid \rho _t = j)$. This implies p ₁₂ = 1 − p ₁₁ and p ₂₂ = 1 − p ₂₁.

The model is calibrated by maximum likelihood estimation as detailed in Milidonis et al. (Reference Milidonis, Lin and Cox2011). Forecasts are obtained via Monte Carlo simulation (with J = 10⁶ paths) from (12). Similarly to the jump model, we need an estimate of the hidden state process $\rho _{t_Y}$ to obtain forecasts for $\rho _{t_Y + 1}$ and then $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_{t_Y + 1}$. We set $\rho _{t_Y}^a\, \colon = 1$ on Monte Carlo paths a = 1, …, πJ and $\rho _{t_Y}^a\, \colon = 2$ on Monte Carlo paths a = πJ + 1, …, 10⁶, where

(14)$$\pi\, \colon = \mathbb{P}\left(\rho_{t_Y} = 1 \vert \Delta\hat{\kappa}_{t_Y},\; \ldots,\; \Delta\hat{\kappa}_{t_2}\right),\; $$

see Milidonis et al. (Reference Milidonis, Lin and Cox2011, Appendix A) for details on how to estimate this probability. This approach ensures that appropriate regime transition probabilities are used when forecasting $\hat {\kappa }_{t_Y + 1}$. Any mortality shock at time t _Y would, however, persist in forecasts because the jump-off value $\hat {\kappa }_{t_Y}$ is used without modification.

Summarizing, in the lognormal, POT, and RS models, the unmodified period effect $\hat {\kappa }_{t_Y}$ is used as a jump-off value for forecasting so that a shock in t _Y will persist in forecasts, at least temporarily. This could be amended by using a more robust jump-off value such as the average or even the median of $\hat {\kappa }_{t_{Y}},\; \hat {\kappa }_{t_{Y-1}},\; \ldots ,\; \hat {\kappa }_{t_{Y-q}}$ for some $q\in \mathbb{N}$ [Booth et al. (Reference Booth, Hyndman, Tickle and de Jong2006)]. Alternatively, the shocked period effect at t _Y could be “corrected” by estimating the impact of the mortality shock and subtracting it from $\hat {\kappa }_{t_Y}$ before using this as an input for forecasting $\hat {\kappa }_{t_Y + 1}$.Footnote ⁴ Both these adjustments would only change the intercept of the mortality trend, not its slope and also not the size of the estimated prediction uncertainty. We leave the identification and implementation of a suitable approach for the lognormal, POT, and RS models for future work.

2.4. A modified shock model calibration procedure

Chen and Cummins (Reference Chen and Cummins2010), Chen and Cox (Reference Chen and Cox2009), and Milidonis et al. (Reference Milidonis, Lin and Cox2011) all propose to calibrate their models on a long observation period of mortality data. On the one hand, this makes sense since the models have to see sufficiently many data to get a good understanding of how extreme observations look like. On the other hand, the parameters α _x, β _x, μ, and σ are assumed to be constant over time. Such an assumption of time invariance over long calibration windows has been proven wrong for many populations in the literature, see in particular Carter and Prskawetz (Reference Carter and Prskawetz2001); Lee and Miller (Reference Lee and Miller2001); Li et al. (Reference Li, Lee and Gerland2013) for β _x and Booth et al. (Reference Booth, Maindonald and Smith2002); Sweeting (Reference Sweeting2011); Li et al. (Reference Li, Chan and Cheung2011) for μ.

Therefore, we propose to use a reduced calibration data set to ensure that the assumptions of the LC model are met. More precisely, we calibrate the LC and RWD parameters α _x, β _x, μ, and σ on a shorter time period than the “shock parameters” θ, where θ = (z, ξ, ζ) for the POT model, θ = (m, s, p) for the jump model, and θ = (m, s, p ₁₁, p ₂₁) for the RS model. We modify the calibration for the POT, jump, and RS approaches introduced in section 2.3 as follows:

1. 1. Calibrate an LC model on all available training data, e.g., on all the years from 1900 to 2020 to obtain parameters ${\alpha }_x^{\rm long}$, ${\beta }_x^{\rm long}$, and ${\kappa }_t^{\rm long}$.

2. 2. Calibrate a POT/jump/RS model on the estimated period effects $\hat {\kappa }_t^{\rm long}$ from step 1 to obtain θ ^long (shock parameters).

3. 3. Calibrate another LC model on a reduced training data set with $t\in {\cal T}^{\rm red}$, e.g., only on the years from 1991 to 2020 to obtain parameters α _x, β _x, and κ _t.

4. 4. Choose μ and σ such that they maximize the profile likelihood (defined analogously as in (7)) for the observations $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_t,\; t\in {\cal T}^{\rm red},\;$ with fixed θ = θ ^long.Footnote ⁵

The procedure yields a shock model with LC parameters α _x, β _x, κ _t, and period effect time series parameters μ, σ, θ ^long. This can be interpreted as a model on ${\cal T}^{\rm red}$ which incorporates the shock parameters θ ^long as prior knowledge. They are calibrated on the whole available data set in the preliminary step 2, whereas all remaining parameters are calibrated on a shorter data set (steps 3 and 4) to ensure that the assumptions underlying the LC model are not violated. In our empirical studies, we use the last 30 years of data to calibrate the LC parameters as well as the drift and volatility of the period effects.

3.1. Checking the normal distribution assumption

Some of the models introduced in section 2.3 deviate from the normal distribution assumption for the period effect increments $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_t$. To evaluate whether this is justified as a consequence of the 2020 mortality shock, we compare their empirical distribution to the normal distribution with quantile–quantile plots in Figure 1. It is evident that the normal distribution assumption is broadly justified for the years up to 2019, but the point corresponding to 2020 is clearly visible as an outlier for several populations. Certainly, based on this observation, one could argue for using an outlier adjustment method to exclude these data. However, this is questionable since one cannot rule out the possibility of future pandemics or other shock events occurring.

Figure 1.

Quantile–quantile plots comparing the empirical distribution of $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_{1992},\; \ldots ,\; \Delta \hat {\kappa }_{2019}$ (black circles) and $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_{2020}$ (red square) to a normal distribution.

We apply the Shapiro–Wilk test [Shapiro and Wilk (Reference Shapiro and Wilk1965)], a statistical test to check whether the observed period effect increments have been generated from a normal distribution.Footnote ⁶ Table 2 compares its p-values when calibrating the LC model on years up to 2019 and on years up to 2020. Unsurprisingly, they generally decrease, indicating a tendency to reject the normality assumption when 2020 is included in the calibration period.

Table 2.

p-values of Shapiro–Wilk normality tests for all populations and jump-off years 2019 (models calibrated on 1990–2019) and 2020 (models calibrated on 1991–2020)

We have performed multiple (54) statistical tests here, which means some adjustment procedure has to be applied to the p-values shown in Table 2 in order to keep the family-wise error rate below a desired significance level. Using the Bonferroni–Holm correction [Holm (Reference Holm1979)] we find that normality of the period effect increments is never rejected at a 5% significance level for models calibrated on 1990–2019 data, whereas it is rejected for 12 out of 27 populations for models calibrated on 1991–2020 data. These are the male, female, and total populations of Belgium, Poland, and Spain as well as French males, Italian males, and the total Italian population.

3.2. Evaluating our shock model calibration procedure

We evaluate the adjusted calibration procedure we have proposed in section 2.4 via a backtest. For this, we calibrate

1. 1. all the parameters on all available data up to 2010 (“long”),

2. 2. only the shock parameters on all available data up to 2010, the remaining LC parameters on years 1981–2010 as described in section 2.4 (“short”).

Then, we use both models to produce 1- to 10-year point forecasts $\hat {m}_{x, t}^i$ for the years t = 2011, …, 2020. These are compared to the ground truth $m_{x, t}^i$ by calculating the median average percentage error

(15)$${\rm MdAPE}( t) \, \colon = {\rm median}_{x\in{\cal X}, i\in{\cal P}} {\left\vert \hat{m}_{x, t}^i - m_{x, t}^i \right\vert \over m_{x, t}^i} \cdot 100\%.$$

As we observe from Figure 2, MdAPEs are clearly lower when a shorter time period is used for calibrating the LC model parameters and the normal mortality drift μ and volatility σ. The shock year 2020 is an exception, indicating that calibrating these parameters over an extensively long time horizon has made them overly pessimistic. Indeed, we find that using a smaller calibration period often significantly reduces μ or σ.

Figure 2.

Yearly MdAPE between 2011 and 2020 for shock models with α _x, β _x, μ, σ calibrated on data between 1981 and 2010 (“short”) or all available data (“long”).

As reliable point forecasts are the most important requirement for a mortality model, we conclude that the proposed adjustment to the calibration is highly recommendable. We will use it throughout this section.

3.3. Shock probability and severity

The jump and the RS model provide information on the probability and the size of mortality shocks in the observed data. Figure 3 shows the period effect increments and probability of being in the normal state of the RS model. This probability is mostly close to one in all nine countries from 1975 to 2020. In 2020, a change of regime is experienced by six of them.

Figure 3.

Period effect increments $\Delta \hat {\kappa }_t$ (blue, solid; left axis) and probability $\mathbb{P}( \rho _t = 1\vert \Delta \hat {\kappa }_{t},\; \ldots ,\; \Delta \hat {\kappa }_2)$ of the “normal” state in the RS model (orange, dash; right axis).

Table 3 displays the probabilities and expected sizes of a mortality jump conditional on the observed period effect change in 2020 according to the jump model (8). Apart from one exception, jump probabilities are larger than 60%. However, jump severities differ significantly by country. Furthermore, we have observed that in order to obtain sensible estimates, a sufficiently long history of mortality data is necessary. For some populations with relatively short mortality history (e.g., German males or Polish males), estimated jump probabilities are close to 100%, but the expected jump size is 0 because not enough historical mortality jump observations are available to calibrate an informative jump severity distribution.

Table 3.

Conditional jump probability $\mathbb{P}( N_{2020} = 1 \vert \Delta \hat {\kappa }_{2020})$ and expected jump size $\mathbb{E}( W_{2020} \vert \Delta \hat {\kappa }_{2020})$, see (10) and (9)

3.4. Model parameters

We expect the additional parameters introduced by the POT, jump, and RS models to have a stabilizing effect on μ and σ, the drift and volatility of the period effect increments when mortality rates are normal. The lacking robustness of the RWD drift parameter is a well-known issue even under normal mortality and has been termed recalibration risk by Cairns (Reference Cairns2013).

Figure 4 shows μ and σ of the shock models, comparing them to the RWD over two different calibration periods. When including the year 2020 in the calibration data set, μ and σ under the RWD clearly increase for all the countries. Considering the other models, these parameters are indeed less influenced by the extreme behavior of 2020 and there are only a few larger changes. For example, the volatility for Switzerland under the RS model increases. This is not surprising since the mortality shock in this country has not been large enough to lead to a regime change (see Figure 3), so that the observation of 2020 is used to calibrate μ and σ, increasing both.

Figure 4.

Model parameters μ and σ calibrated on the years 1990–2019 or 1991–2020 of the jump, peaks-over-threshold (pot), regime switching (rs), and random walk with drift (rwd) models.

3.5. Comparing the quality of fit

As all our models are calibrated via maximum likelihood estimation, a natural way of comparing their in-sample behavior consists in comparing their likelihoods. To account for the different number of parameters we consider the Bayesian information criterion

(16)$${\rm BIC}\, \colon = -2 {\rm L}_{{\rm max}} + \log \left(n_{{\rm obs}}\right)\cdot {\rm n}_{{\rm par}},\; $$

where ${\rm L}_{\rm max}$ is the model log-likelihood, n _obs the number of observations, and ${\rm n}_{\rm par}$ the number of free parameters [see Cairns et al. (Reference Cairns, Blake, Dowd, Coughlan, Epstein, Ong and Balevich2009) for a previous application of the ${\rm BIC}$ to compare mortality models]. This penalizes the likelihood, giving preference to more parsimonious models. The likelihood and the number of observations are calculated on the 30 years of data on which the LC parameters and the period effect drift and volatility are calibrated. For the shock models, we are actually including more information in the model by the calibration procedure described in section 2.4. We account for this by including the shock parameters θ in the total number of free parameters. This means we fully penalize for the increased model complexity, although these parameters are fixed in a first calibration step and the remaining parameters are calibrated conditional on θ. Admittedly, this is a somewhat non-standard application of the ${\rm BIC}$, but the results can nevertheless be assumed to give a good indication as to the balance of quality of fit and parsimony achieved by the models.

The ${\rm BIC}$ values of our models per country are displayed in Figure 5. The RWD mostly does not fit well, regardless of whether an underlying normal or lognormal distribution is assumed. In some cases, using a more general ARIMA model leads to better performance, but apart from Austria and Switzerland this is not optimal, either. The intervention model approach achieves low BIC values but is conceptually questionable due to its model structure, which does not allow for the future occurrence of non-normal mortality shocks. The shock models are more heavily penalized due to their higher number of parameters. The RS and jump models only in a few cases achieve a decrease in ${\rm BIC}$ compared to the RWD. The POT model has low ${\rm BIC}$ for all countries, which shows that the POT-based model adjustment improves the quality of fit even after accounting for the increased model complexity.

Figure 5.

${\rm BIC}$ for models calibrated on data from 1991 to 2020. The black dashed line is at the level of the best-fitting model.

3.6. Backtest

In section 3.2, we have already performed a backtest to determine the calibration method for the POT, jump, and RS models, and we have found that the approach proposed in section 2.4 leads to better point forecasts. Here, using this new calibration method, we do another backtest to evaluate how the different models listed in Table 1 would have performed in the past.Footnote ⁷ Analogously as in section 3.2, we calibrate the models on data from 1981 to 2010 (except for the shock parameters, which are also calibrated on all available data before 1981) and evaluate them on 2011–2020. For further details on backtesting methods for stochastic mortality models, we refer to Dowd et al. (Reference Dowd, Cairns, Blake, Coughlan, Epstein and Khalaf-Allah2010), where the approach we take here is termed an expanding horizons backtest.

In Figure 6, we display the point forecast errors measured by MdAPE as defined in (15). We observe an increase over time, which is plausible as mortality rates further in the future are harder to predict and forecasting errors tend to accumulate over time, with a peak in the shock year 2020. Differences between the models are negligible.

Figure 6.

Point and interval forecast performance measures from 2011 to 2020 (models calibrated on data from 1981 to 2010). (a) Point forecast errors, (b) interval coverage probability.

The situation is different for interval forecasts as measured by the prediction interval coverage probability

(17)$${\rm PICP}( t) \, \colon = {1\over \left\vert {\cal X}\right\vert \cdot \left\vert {\cal P}\right\vert } \sum\limits_{x\in{\cal X}} \sum\limits_{i\in{\cal P}} {1}_{\left\{m_{x, t}^i \in \left[\hat{m}_{x, t}^{i, {\rm lower}}, \hat{m}_{x, t}^{i, {\rm upper}}\right]\right\}},\; $$

where ${1}$ denotes an indicator function and $[ \hat {m}_{x, t}^{i, {\rm lower}},\; \hat {m}_{x, t}^{i, {\rm upper}}]$ is the 95% prediction interval implied by the model, which is calculated by Monte Carlo simulation or explicit formulae, if available [see section 2 and Schnürch et al. (Reference Schnürch, Kleinow, Korn and Wagner2022)]. It seems that the RWD as well as the more general ARIMA model and the intervention model underestimate the uncertainty in their forecasts, in particular for the shock year 2020. Assuming a lognormal instead of a normal distribution does not lead to significant changes of the PICP. The jump model has the highest PICP initially, but it then decreases over time. This is due to its model structure and will be discussed further in section 3.7. The POT model and particularly the RS approach outperform the other methods for longer forecasting horizons. However, for the RS model this comes at the cost of very wide prediction intervals in some cases so that its intervals are more reliable but less informative.

The PICP is well below 95% for all models and time points. This is due to the fact that we ignore some sources of uncertainty in our consideration. For example, the prediction intervals could be extended to include parameter uncertainty via a bootstrapping approach [Koissi et al. (Reference Koissi, Shapiro and Högnäs2006)].

As a robustness check, we have repeated the above evaluation for 99.5% prediction intervals and have found that the results are qualitatively similar.

3.7. Period effect forecasts

In this section, we illustrate the differences in period effect forecasts between the standard choice for a time series model, which is the RWD, and selected alternatives. In Figure 7, we display the observed period effects $\hat {\kappa }_t$, t = 1991, …, 2020, and their point and 95% interval forecasts according to the RWD, jump, POT, and RS models. For Sweden, a population with rather small estimated jump probability and size (see Table 3), all point forecasts use a jump-off value equal or close to $\hat {\kappa }_{2020}$, and mostly agree in their trend, staying relatively similar over time. Interval forecasts differ significantly: the jump model has the most narrow intervals, followed by the standard RWD approach. The POT model has almost the same lower interval bounds as the RWD, but its upper bounds are more conservative. The RS model has the widest intervals except in the first few years. This is probably due to its two quite distinct regimes (μ = −0.23, σ = 0.14 vs. m = −0.10, s = 0.96).

Figure 7.

Observed period effects $\hat {\kappa }_t$, t = 1991, …, 2020, as well as point and 95% interval forecasts $\hat {\kappa }_t$ of selected models, t = 2021, …, 2049. Intervals obtained by closed-form expressions (RWD) or Monte Carlo simulation (jump, POT, RS). (a) Sweden, (b) Poland

In contrast, point forecasts visibly differ between models for Poland, which has experienced a relatively large shock to its 2020 period effect. In particular, the jump model reverts much of this shock before forecasting so that its central projection is more optimistic than that of the other models. Still, POT and RS predict a stronger decreasing trend than RWD. Prediction interval width is largest for the RWD, which is probably due to the fact that the 2020 mortality shock leads to a large increase in period effect volatility. The other models are able to (partially) capture this volatility in their shock parameters (s in the jump and RS model, the GPD parameters in the POT model), which usually have a smaller impact on prediction intervals than volatility at “normal” times.

For an easier visual comparison of all models and countries, we display point and interval forecasts in the last forecast year, $\hat {\kappa }_{2050}$, in Figure 8. Allowing for a more general ARIMA process (auto.arima) than the RWD tends to decrease point forecasts and leads to more narrow prediction intervals for some countries (e.g., Belgium), which is possibly due to ARIMA models generally not putting as much emphasis on the last observed value $\hat {\kappa }_{2020}$ as the RWD. Modeling the period effect with a lognormal distribution leads to almost identical point forecasts as the RWD, whereas the prediction intervals have a tendency to be slightly narrower. Unsurprisingly, the intervention and best estimate approaches are more optimistic than the RWD, with lower point forecasts in all countries. Their prediction intervals are narrower because they ignore the extreme observation of 2020.

Figure 8.

Country-specific period effect point and 95% interval forecasts for the year 2050, $\hat {\kappa }_{2050}$, comparing different time series forecasting methods. Intervals obtained by closed-form expressions or Monte Carlo simulation.

The jump model usually has lower point forecasts than the RWD because jumps vanish after one period, which is implemented by reducing $\hat {\kappa }_{2020}$ by the expected jump size before using it as the forecast jump-off value, see section 2.3. The model also tends to have narrow prediction intervals. A look at the parameters indicates that it separates the period effect increment distribution into two components: a normal component with low drift μ and low volatility σ and a shock component with higher, usually positive drift m and volatility s > 0. The influence of the shock component for long-term forecasts is small compared to the influence of the normal component because the jumps are modeled as transitory, so they do not have a lasting impact. Therefore, the reduction in normal volatility σ compared to an ordinary RWD model can lead to lower prediction uncertainty.

The RWD, POT, and RS point forecasts are broadly similar and there is no country-independent tendency regarding their order. For a few countries (e.g., Italy), the RS prediction intervals are substantially wider than the RWD intervals, which is due to the high estimated volatility (e.g., s = 1.7) in the shock regime combined with the non-negligible probability of transitioning into this regime from the normal state (e.g., $p_{12} = 4.9\%$). It is visible that POT and RS put higher emphasis on (upward) mortality shocks because the prediction intervals are often asymmetric with a wider upper part.

3.8. Life insurance and annuity values

The mortality forecasts of our models can be summarized and we can obtain a better understanding of model risk by calculating life insurance and annuity values [see Richards and Currie (Reference Richards and Currie2009); Schnürch et al. (Reference Schnürch, Kleinow, Korn and Wagner2022)]. For this, we assume a constant yearly discount factor $v = {1\over 1.005}$, which is a simplification allowing us to focus on the differences in mortality forecasts. As a typical example we consider a term assurance issued to a life aged x = 35 at the start of year t = 2021 which runs for n = 30 years and pays an amount of 1 at the end of the year if the life has died within this year. Its present value is given by

(18)$$\eqalign{A_{x\, \colon \, {\overline{n}\vert}}( t) & \, \colon = \displaystyle\sum\limits_{s = 0}^{n-1} v^{s + 1} {}_{s}p_{x, t} \left(1 - p_{x + s, t + s}\right)\cr & \approx \displaystyle\sum\limits_{s = 0}^{n-1} v^{s + 1} \exp\left(-\displaystyle\sum\limits_{\,j = 0}^{s-1} m_{x + j, t + j}\right)\left(1 - \exp\left(-m_{x + s, t + s} \right)\right). }$$

Here, we have used the approximation p _x,t ≈ exp ( − m _x,t) [Pitacco et al. (Reference Pitacco, Denuit, Haberman and Olivieri2008), Chapter 2.3].

Similarly, we determine the present value of a temporary annuity-immediate for a life aged x = 65 at the start of year t = 2021 running for n = 30 years, denoted by $a_{x\, \colon \, {\overline{n}\vert}}( t)$. We calculate intervals for annuity and life insurance values by inserting the 95% prediction interval bounds for the death rates into the annuity and life insurance valuation formulae.Footnote ⁸

Figure 9 shows life insurance values implied by the different models. Annuity values are shown in Figure 12 (Appendix B). Observations from these figures are mostly analogous to the ones about period effect forecasts in section 3.7.

Figure 9.

Country-specific life insurance values $A_{35\, \colon \, {\overline{30}\vert}}( 2021)$ based on point and interval death rate forecasts, comparing different time series forecasting methods. Discount factor $v = {1\over 1.005}$. The bars are obtained by inserting the 95% prediction interval bounds for the death rates into (18).

3.9. Model performance under different future scenarios

It would be useful to get some impression of the future forecasting accuracy of the different models. This is complicated by the fact that the occurrence of mortality shocks and the further course of the COVID-19 pandemic are very hard to predict. While most scientists believe that a transition to an endemic phase is the most likely trajectory and a worldwide elimination of the virus is considered almost impossible [Scudellari (Reference Scudellari2020); Phillips (Reference Phillips2021)], it is unclear how long such a transition will take and how severe the disease will continue to be.

Telenti et al. (Reference Telenti, Arvin, Corey, Corti, Diamond, García-Sastre, Garry, Holmes, Pang and Virgin2021) describe three future scenarios: (i) ongoing high levels of infection and severe disease due to the inability to gain rapid control over COVID-19, (ii) transition to an endemic seasonal disease similar to influenza, which has a yearly global death toll approximately between 250000 and 500000, (iii) transition to an endemic disease similar to other existing human coronavirus infections with significantly lower impact on population health and mortality. This last state could, however, take decades to reach or may not occur at all. They further note that the probability of occurrence is hard to quantify for any of these scenarios due to material gaps in current scientific knowledge.

Another aspect influencing the assessment of future mortality development is the possibility that SARS-CoV-2 might reoccur years after the alleged end of the COVID-19 pandemic, for instance by spilling back from animal reservoirs into the human population [Phillips (Reference Phillips2021)]. Brüssow (Reference Brüssow2021) points out that COVID-19 displays clinical similarities to the 1889 Russian flu pandemic, which lasted for several years and then possibly reappeared around ten years later. As a related alternative, a new mortality shock might arise, for example, in the form of another pandemic caused by a different pathogen such as MERS-CoV: “the risk for MERS-CoV evolving into a more transmissible virus should not be underestimated” [Telenti et al. (Reference Telenti, Arvin, Corey, Corti, Diamond, García-Sastre, Garry, Holmes, Pang and Virgin2021)]. It is impossible to predict the exact time, but it is highly likely that further pandemics will emerge: “the question is not if, but when” [World Health Organization (2021)].

With these considerations in mind, we define five exemplary 30-year scenarios of future mortality with a focus on the development of COVID-19 and the occurrence of new mortality shocks. Detailed definitions of these scenarios are provided in Appendix A. Generally, two of them are relatively optimistic (second wave in 2021 and normality afterwards; only short-term mortality impairments), while the others are more pessimistic (occurrence of another pandemic in 2034; occurrence of another pandemic in 2048; persistent consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic). Our scenarios for the future impact of COVID-19 on mortality are inspired by the ones considered by Continuous Mortality Investigation (2020). For the scenarios including the occurrence of a further pandemic, we have chosen the years 2034 and 2048 arbitrarily for illustrative purposes. Zhou and Li (Reference Zhou and Li2021) show how to include expert opinions about disease transmission and infection fatality rates on the short term and about the reoccurrence of a COVID-alike pandemic on the longer term in the definition of mortality scenarios.

In order to get a better impression of each model's forecasting behavior, we evaluate its average and worst-case performance over our five scenarios. Figure 10 shows the results of this evaluation.

Figure 10.

Point and interval forecast errors over different future mortality scenarios, average and worst case. Model calibrated on data from 1991 to 2020.

The models usually achieve their worst performance in the most pessimistic scenario, which assumes a persisting interruption of mortality improvements. The best estimate and intervention models are the least robust with respect to this scenario and have the highest worst-case MdAPE and lowest worst-case PICP. The remaining models have similar point forecasts and, therefore, similar average and worst-case performances (the jump model is a slight exception). However, the prediction intervals of the POT and the RS model are more robust with respect to their worst-case errors compared to the RWD.

With a scenario-based approach, model choice can be grounded upon the beliefs of the modeler by assigning subjective probabilities to each of the scenarios, calculating a correspondingly weighted average of the error measures under each scenario and choosing the model which minimizes this weighted average. Of course, this requires sufficient information to estimate occurrence probabilities, which will only be obtained over time.