What is Resilience?

According to Michael Ungar (Reference Ungar2013), ‘Resilience is both the capacity of individuals to navigate their way to the psychological, social, cultural, and physical resources that sustain their wellbeing, and their capacity individually and collectively to negotiate for these resources to be provided in culturally meaningful ways’ (p. 69). Ungar suggests that for individuals to be resilient, they should be encouraged to become aware of the resources they need and be able to access them from their environment for the purpose of managing and/or overcoming adversity. The development of resilience offers many opportunities to facilitate the individual’s ability to cope when adversity arises. The level of interpersonal resilience is equivocal to the coping mechanism applied to not only face, but to successfully manage challenges. The development of resilience is influenced by environmental, familial, biological, cultural and community factors, and according to seminal researchers, incorporates several behavioural attributes that are considered protective when applied to situations of conflict or stress (Garmezy, Reference Garmezy1991a, Reference Garmezy1991b; Masten & Coatsworth, Reference Masten and Coatsworth1998; Rutter, Reference Rutter1979, Reference Rutter1985; Ungar, Reference Ungar2013).

Resilience is primarily about using adaptive strategies to enhance coping. One of the greatest challenges that pose a risk to coping and recovery is the effect of cumulative stress (Rutter, Reference Rutter2007). Cumulative stress can have detrimental effects on the body; however, for most individuals, experiencing stress is unavoidable. One of the protective ways to reduce the process of suffering during stressful periods is by using mindfulness as a tool through the process of embodiment to develop resilience. The process of embodiment recognises stress arising in the body, and mindfulness practice allows the individual to hold the space through self-awareness. This enables the body’s wisdom to move through and recognise, sense and feel the situation without reaction, and respond to the stress in adaptable ways, leading to resilience (Wayne, Reference Wayne2021). Therefore, to strengthen resilience, an understanding of how mindful behaviours can support the body in times of stress is required. Mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) continues to grow in the areas of psychology, counselling and education to enhance and support coping strategies among school teachers, with the notion of reducing burnout (Renshaw et al., Reference Renshaw, Fischer and Klingbeil2017).

What is Mindfulness?

Mindfulness involves the capacity of being present in the moment and intentionally paying close attention to a situation in a nonjudgmental and nonreactive way, while holding a curious and strong sense of self-awareness of the body and mind (Emerson et al., Reference Emerson, Leyland, Hudson, Rowse, Hanley and Hugh-Jones2017; Jennings et al., Reference Jennings, Frank, Snoberg, Coccia and Greenberg2013; Kabat-Zinn, Reference Kabat-Zinn1994; Kerr et al., Reference Kerr, Lucas, Didomenico, Mishra, Stanton, Shivde, Pero, Runyen and Terry2017; Rupprecht et al., Reference Rupprecht, Paulus and Walach2017). Present-centred awareness allows every thought, feeling or sensation to be patiently observed, accepted and acknowledged in order to receive an experience in a clear and calm way (Ardiati, Reference Ardiati2019; Jennings et al., Reference Jennings, Frank, Snoberg, Coccia and Greenberg2013). Mindfulness is not about clearing one’s mind of thoughts (Bailey et al., Reference Bailey, Owen, Hassed, Chambers, Jones and Wootten2018) but is an active process where the focus of attention leads to self-awareness and insightful reflection and concentration (Brown et al., Reference Brown, Ryan and Creswell2007; Hooker & Foder, Reference Hooker and Fodor2008; Jennings et al., Reference Jennings, Frank, Snoberg, Coccia and Greenberg2013). The process also involves actively attending to the external environment (e.g., sights, smells, sounds) and to internal bodily sensations, thoughts, and feelings (Hooker & Foder, Reference Hooker and Fodor2008).

Mindfulness training has been used for treating a range of clinical mental health issues (e.g., depression, chronic pain, and anxiety disorders) and meta-analytic reviews of research have shown medium to large effect sizes of mindfulness interventions on psychological health (Carmody & Baer, Reference Carmody and Baer2009; de Vibe et al., Reference de Vibe, Bjørndal, Tipton, Hammerstrøm and Kowalski2012). Mindful interventions can ease anxiety and promote wellbeing (Ancona & Mendelson, Reference Ancona and Mendelson2014; Jennings, Reference Jennings2015; Flook et al., Reference Flook, Goldberg, Pinger, Bonus and Davidson2013; Roeser et al., Reference Roeser, Skinner, Beers and Jennings2012) and have also been found to reduce stress and anxiety (Grossman et al., Reference Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt and Walach2004; Kostanksi, Reference Kostanski2007; Poulin et al., Reference Poulin, Mackenzie, Soloway and Karayolas2008) and improve sleep patterns (Crain et al., Reference Crain, Schonert-Reichl and Roeser2017).

Being mindful enhances self-awareness, which can assist in making deliberate choices on how we respond to a given situation. Mindful behavioural reactions to stressful events can improve our ability to apply emotional regulation, which decreases stress cortisol (Fogarty, Reference Fogarty2009; Willis, Reference Willis2007), and through the prefrontal cortex, the individual can develop a clear perspective and apply a sense of calmness when stress arises (Lazar et al., Reference Lazar, Kerr, Wasserman, Gray, Greve, Treadway, McGarvey, Quinn, Dusek, Benson, Rauch, Moore and Fischl2005). Through mindfulness and the development of body awareness (Lazar et al., Reference Lazar, Kerr, Wasserman, Gray, Greve, Treadway, McGarvey, Quinn, Dusek, Benson, Rauch, Moore and Fischl2005), the individual can attain improved attention and working memory (Jha et al., Reference Jha, Krompinger and Baimer2007) and increase positive mood states (Chiesa & Serreti, Reference Chiesa and Serreti2009; Jimenez et al., Reference Jimenez, Niles and Park2010). Functional magnetic resonance imaging has shown that individuals with mindfulness skills are less reactive to emotional stimuli and can better regulate their emotions and responses to stressful events (Brown et al., Reference Brown, Ryan and Creswell2007; Lutz et al., Reference Lutz, Herwig, Opialla, Hittmeyer, Jancke, Rufer, Grosse Holtforth and Bruhl2014).

Hanh (Reference Hanh2011) argues that everyone has the capacity to be mindful and that mindfulness skills can be learnt by engaging in mindfulness activities. Mindfulness skills can help alleviate stress and anxiety by connecting oneself with thoughts of openness, curiosity, compassion, and calming emotions (Bernay, Reference Bernay2012, Reference Bernay2014). This is very relevant within a teacher’s work as mindful acceptance can calm emotions in challenging situations in the classroom (Rupprecht et al., Reference Rupprecht, Paulus and Walach2017). For example, a teacher who worries about what might happen in the future or what happened in the past rather than what is happening in the present moment may use mindfulness to focus their attention on the present, which can help break the worry cycle (Hooker & Fodor, Reference Hooker and Fodor2008). An essential part of mindfulness is supporting teachers to build skills to cope with demanding, challenging and stressful situations (Taylor et al., Reference Taylor, Harrison, Haimovitz, Oberle, Thomson, Schonert-Reichi and Roeser2016). As such, school psychologists and counsellors play a key role in applying their understanding of mindfulness to support teachers’ mental health and wellbeing in schools.

The Importance of Mindfulness and Resilience

Mindfulness is a core skill that underpins the development of resilience. Tillott (Reference Tillott2019), in her thesis, examined the seminal literature of resilience theory, with a particular focus on children. The thesis constructed a framework that unpacks the core interpersonal skills that underpin the development of resilience. Tillott’s (Reference Tillott2019) framework suggests that there are adaptive and maladaptive traits that either support or reduce the development of resilience. Resilience is marked by activation of the prefrontal cortex, which promotes use of adaptive responses to stress (Tillott, Reference Tillott2019). These skills form interpersonal traits of resilience and are considered protective in the way of mitigating stress. Such interpersonal skill includes the ability to become aware of and regulate emotions, form conflict resolution skills, use effective verbal and nonverbal skill of communication, and apply critical thinking in decision making and problem solving with the notion of forming a solution-focused outcome (Tillott et al., Reference Tillott, Weatherby-Fell, Pearson and Neumann2021).

Resilience is also developed by enabling individuals to take responsibility for their actions and choices and using empathy and compassion when required. It involves the utilisation of the core skills of reflection in the context of learning and improving future outcomes, and finally developing autonomy with these skills (Tillott, Reference Tillott2019). These adaptive processes of learning and acquiring resilience skills are represented by the roots on the tree presented in Figure 1. The more frequently these skills are utilised, the stronger the development of the prefrontal cortex. To develop these skills, individuals are encouraged to use the process of mindfulness to observe their thoughts, feelings and behaviours that might arise in the response to stress, and then review the impact of these behaviours on the surrounding environment.

Figure 1.

Tillott Rainbow Resilience Tree (Tillott, Reference Tillott2020).

The ability to mindfully respond to stress improves the development of the self and the social surroundings, leading to resilience. This level of awareness lends itself to forming mindful ways of living, and through reflection we can find ways to use our adaptive coping mechanism, which then in turn strengthens the notion of self. This includes improving self-esteem, self-confidence, self-efficacy, and self-belief, which is reflected as the core of the tree seen in Figure 1. When the concepts of our self are strong, such as good self-esteem, self-confidence and self-efficacy, the core of ourselves strengthens; conversely, when it is challenged through our peers and or environment or in times that evoke stress, this aspect of ourselves can become challenged and vulnerable. Using mindfulness as a skill to become aware of the self and the notion of using adaptive attributes to develop the individual traits of resilience have proven to be beneficial for health and wellbeing (Tillott, Reference Tillott2019). With the increasing pressures on teachers, practising these skills offers potential protective benefits to mitigate the stressors of the workplace, and furthermore provides the possibility for teachers to form positive relationships with students. Training and fostering resilience-based skills in both preservice and inservice teachers can take time, practice and awareness, all of which complement and are strengthened though the process of mindfulness.

Mindfulness-Resilience Training and Preservice Teachers

Mindfulness-resilience training should be provided for preservice teachers through their education programs at university and schools. Demanding course workloads and financial pressures at university can contribute to preservice teacher stress (Kerr et al., Reference Kerr, Lucas, Didomenico, Mishra, Stanton, Shivde, Pero, Runyen and Terry2017). To manage this stress, student teachers need effective emotional regulation skills to manage their responses to stress in preparation for the challenge of teaching in the classroom. Few preservice education programs provide support to promote student teacher wellbeing and to help them cope with the emotional demands and stress of the profession. However, training that builds teacher mindfulness and resilience has the potential to reduce preservice teacher stress and improve retention of students at university (Bernay, Reference Bernay2014; Gless & Moir, Reference Gless and Moir2004).

Several studies have demonstrated the benefits of mindfulness programs to support preservice teachers. For example, Hue and Lau (Reference Hue and Lau2015) investigated the effects of a six-week mindfulness-based program (body scan and stretching exercises, self-awareness of thoughts and emotions, and mindful practice of sitting, standing, walking and eating) on preservice teachers in a tertiary education institute in Hong Kong (N = 70). It was hypothesised that the program would increase mindfulness and promote wellbeing while reducing stress. Both the intervention and control groups were assessed at pretest and posttest using surveys such as the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown & Ryan Reference Brown and Ryan2003) and Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI; Walach et al., Reference Walach, Buchheld, Buttenmüller, Kleinknecht and Schmidt2006). Although students had some anxiety prior to the mindfulness training, a significant increase in mindfulness and wellbeing was also found following the program. Preservice teachers’ level of mindfulness was reported to be a significant predictor of wellbeing, stress and anxiety, and the participants reported having a positive experience, reduced stress and a greater increase in their awareness of internal experiences in their mind and body.

Similarly, Kerr et al. (Reference Kerr, Lucas, Didomenico, Mishra, Stanton, Shivde, Pero, Runyen and Terry2017) explored the usefulness of mindfulness for preservice teachers by investigating the effects of training 23 preservice teachers in mindfulness strategies. Preservice teachers were allocated to either a six-week mindfulness-training program that implemented emotional regulation techniques or a control condition. At posttest, participants reported greater emotional clarity and improved regulation of negative emotions. In particular, the mindfulness group showed better control of negative emotions and greater control of impulsive behaviour, and were more likely to respond flexibly to stressful situations compared to the control group. Kerr et al. (Reference Kerr, Lucas, Didomenico, Mishra, Stanton, Shivde, Pero, Runyen and Terry2017) highlighted that the mindfulness program was most beneficial to preservice teachers’ development of self-regulation, a core skill underpinning the development of resilience.

Bernay (Reference Bernay2014) examined the effect of training on preservice primary school teachers in New Zealand using breath awareness and body scan exercises to learn strategies to enhance mindfulness in everyday life (e.g., brushing teeth or driving a car). The preservice teachers participated in a 10-minute mindfulness session during each of their 12 lectures over the first year of study. Students were encouraged to continue with their mindfulness practice throughout their three years of university study and were encouraged to participate in mindfulness exercises provided in lectures and lunchtime sessions. Interview transcripts and student journals were analysed to gain participant views of their everyday mindfulness experiences. Bernay (Reference Bernay2014) reported that the preservice teachers enjoyed the body scan and breath exercises, and that practising mindfulness on a regular basis increased clarity and reduced study stress during their preservice program. Students reported that they gained greater resilience by using mindfulness strategies, and during their practical placement in classrooms, they were able to focus their attention on their primary school students by responding calmly rather than reacting emotionally to situations. Overall, the preservice teachers believed that mindfulness training made a difference in their ability to cope in the first year of teaching.

The effects of mindfulness training on preservice elementary school teachers (N = 20) in a first-year literacy education course at a north-eastern U.S. university was explored by Brown (Reference Brown2017). The preservice teachers practised a range of mindfulness exercises such as breathing mindfully, staying in the present, pausing before reacting, listening, tasting and observing mindfully, and avoiding negative self-talk. During the semester, the participants attended 11 classes that provided 15–20 minutes of mindfulness training and practice during each 3-hour class. The preservice teachers were pre- and posttested using the Mindfulness Awareness Scale (MASS; Brown & Ryan, Reference Brown and Ryan2003), and focus group data were gathered on preservice teacher experiences (e.g., individual mindfulness practice and engagement and what they learnt from the mindfulness training). The survey findings showed that the participants were not significantly more mindful or less stressed at posttest compared to pretest. Based on these findings, it was suggested that 7 hours of mindfulness instruction in total across the semester was insufficient to increase mindfulness and decrease stress, and that the heavy content-laden nature of the course may have also been a contributing factor (Brown, Reference Brown2017). However, the preservice teacher focus group data revealed that mindfulness was useful for stress reduction (Brown, Reference Brown2017). For example, during practical placement, the preservice teachers believed that mindfulness was beneficial by reporting, ‘I think I will apply techniques in the future because they help me to calm down while [it] just helps me to live in the moment’ (p. 142). The preservice teachers liked to relate mindfulness to their teaching practice because they felt it would help their future students to control their anxiety and respond in more resilient ways to stress.

Mindfulness-Resilience Training and Inservice Teachers

It is well established that teachers do suffer from stress and burnout and are at increased risk of leaving their profession (Brown, Reference Brown2017; Crain et al., Reference Crain, Schonert-Reichl and Roeser2017; Emerson et al., Reference Emerson, Leyland, Hudson, Rowse, Hanley and Hugh-Jones2017; Hue & Lau, Reference Hue and Lau2015; Hwang et al., Reference Hwang, Bartlett, Greben and Hand2017; Jennings et al., Reference Jennings, Frank, Snoberg, Coccia and Greenberg2013; Taylor et al., Reference Taylor, Harrison, Haimovitz, Oberle, Thomson, Schonert-Reichi and Roeser2016). Research has shown that teacher burnout is related to excessive work responsibilities, confusions about job expectations, competing demands, insufficient support, and student misbehaviour (Brown, Reference Brown2017). Being a teacher is a very stressful occupation, with 30% of teachers resigning within the first 5 years of working in the profession (Bernay, Reference Bernay2014). Helping teachers practise mindfulness may be an effective way to reduce stress and promote wellbeing, self-awareness, self-regulation, and resilience (Hue & Lau, Reference Hue and Lau2015; Jennings et al., Reference Jennings, Frank, Snoberg, Coccia and Greenberg2013; Vago & Silbersweig, Reference Vago and Silbersweig2012).

Growing research shows benefits of inservice teachers using mindfulness strategies in the classroom to more effectively cope with challenging and stressful situations in the classroom and build resilience (Gold et al., Reference Gold, Smith, Hopper, Herne, Tansey and Hulland2010; Gouda et al., Reference Gouda, Luong, Schmidt and Bauer2016). For example, Crain et al. (Reference Crain, Schonert-Reichl and Roeser2017) conducted a pre-posttest randomised control trial with 113 primary school teachers of an 8-week (11 × 6-hour sessions) mindfulness program using body scan awareness activities. Teachers were pre-posttested using a mindfulness questionnaire (Five Factor Mindfulness Survey; Baer et al., Reference Baer, Smith, Lykins, Button, Krietemeyer, Sauer, Walsh, Duggan and Williams2008). The results showed that mindfulness training resulted in higher work satisfaction, and teachers reported having fewer bad moods at work and home, compared to the control group. Furthermore, the treatment group showed greater increases in mindfulness and decreases in rumination of past negative events, demonstrating that the mindfulness intervention had a positive effect on the teachers’ wellbeing at work and home (Crain et al., Reference Crain, Schonert-Reichl and Roeser2017).

Using a randomised control trial design, Rupprecht et al. (Reference Rupprecht, Paulus and Walach2017) studied the effects of providing 32 German schoolteachers with 5 weeks (26 hours) of mindfulness training (e.g., body scan awareness exercise) facilitated by an instructor with 10 years’ experience. The Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory, measuring trait-mindfulness (Walach et al., Reference Walach, Buchheld, Buttenmüller, Kleinknecht and Schmidt2006), was used to measure mindfulness at pre- and posttest. The intervention showed medium to high effect sizes on mindfulness measures (stress, coping abilities, emotion regulation, self-efficacy, and resilience). An inservice teacher reported: ‘I gained more self-confidence just by having a greater awareness of my body. It’s not that I am doing a specific exercise, I just feel I can take more space and I am generally more present with my body in the classroom.’ Another teacher found it ‘a great new freedom to be able to step out of a situation and look at it from a greater distance. I am not a slave of my habitual patterns anymore’ (p. 577).

Teachers also said that following the mindfulness training, they engaged more wisely in work demands and paused activities that caused stress. For example, a teacher said, ‘I am now able to notice “This is very hectic”. And then I tend to not take things so personally anymore. I take a deeper breath and regulate myself with a greater inner distance to the physical reaction’ (p. 577). Rupprecht et al. (Reference Rupprecht, Paulus and Walach2017) concluded that mindfulness training of teachers, along with diligent teacher participation in mindfulness at home, improved their self-regulation capacity, wellbeing and self-confidence. Similar findings were reported by Taylor et al.’s (Reference Taylor, Harrison, Haimovitz, Oberle, Thomson, Schonert-Reichi and Roeser2016) randomised control study with 59 public school teachers. The mindfulness intervention consisted of body scan and breathing exercises. Following pre-posttests using mindfulness surveys (e.g., occupational stress questionnaire) and interviews it was shown that teachers with the mindfulness training had more adaptive strategies for coping with stress, which resulted in reduced stress. Taylor et al. (Reference Taylor, Harrison, Haimovitz, Oberle, Thomson, Schonert-Reichi and Roeser2016) highlighted that emotional regulation is a key way that mindfulness training alleviates job stress.

Jennings et al. (Reference Jennings, Frank, Snoberg, Coccia and Greenberg2013) also showed that a mindfulness program (N = 50) was an effective method for reducing stress in teachers and improving teaching performance. Teachers participated in breath awareness, body awareness and movement awareness (standing, walking and stretching) exercises. They also used role-play activities to learn how to use mindfulness in challenging classroom situations that may ignite strong emotions. Overall, the participants reported high levels of satisfaction with the program and improved their relationships with students in their classrooms. Potential benefits of using the mindfulness program included reduced emotional reactivity and promotion of teacher wellbeing, which in turn can foster teacher resilience (Jennings et al., Reference Jennings, Frank, Snoberg, Coccia and Greenberg2013). Resilience is a quality of maintaining a commitment to teaching practice despite stressful and ongoing difficulties and is positively related to teacher retention (Hwang et al., Reference Hwang, Bartlett, Greben and Hand2017; Schussler et al., Reference Schussler, Deweese, Rasheed, Demauro, Brown, Greenberg. and Jennings2018). It is argued that teachers who recover quickly from challenges and maintain their confidence can learn skills that enhance their own mindfulness and resilience (Schussler et al., Reference Schussler, Deweese, Rasheed, Demauro, Brown, Greenberg. and Jennings2018).

Practical Strategies to Cultivate Mindfulness-Resilience

Based on the research evidence (e.g., Bernay et al., Reference Bernay, Graham, Devich, Rix and Rubie-Davies2016; Jennings & Greenberg, Reference Jennings and Greenberg2009), a conceptual framework presented in Figure 2 illustrates how mindfulness training works to help teachers recognise and regulate stress through their development of greater self-awareness and emotional regulation (Rupprecht et al. Reference Rupprecht, Paulus and Walach2017), which underpin resilience. Figure 2 shows the influence of mindfulness training on enhancing awareness of self and the environment, which in turn fosters mindfulness skills and positive outcomes such as wellbeing and resilience.

Figure 2.

Concepts of mindfulness-resilience.

Mindfulness training exercises (e.g., breath and body scan awareness exercises) can support a teacher’s state of mindfulness, and this training facilitates the development of emotional and self-regulation, which in turn facilitate resilience building capacity and improves coping mechanisms. Self-regulation has several physiological and psychological benefits. Practices that enhance mind-body integration, such as breathing, elicit a relaxation response; for example, the ability to relax the body through breathing improves oxygen consumption and reduces blood pressure, heart and respiratory rates (Dusek et al., Reference Dusek, Otu, Wohlhueter, Bhasin, Zerbini, Joseph, Benson and Libermann2008). Mind-body integration exercises can help to reduce stress and anxiety while enhancing attention and social skills. Self-regulation through breathing also improves metacognition and self-esteem (Davidson & McEwen, Reference Davidson and McEwen2012).

Mindfulness of breathing involves noticing your breath to develop an awareness of your breathing. When breathing is done mindfully, an awareness of breathing emerges that helps calm the mind, and when emotional arousal occurs, teachers can stop and take a breath before reacting. Also, rhythmic breathing may help to produce a relaxation response (feelings of calm and control), neutralising the fight or flight reaction triggered during a stressful situation (Bernay et al., Reference Bernay, Graham, Devich, Rix and Rubie-Davies2016) as returning attention to a single neutral stimulus (e.g., breath) stabilises emotions (Semple et al., Reference Semple, Reid and Miller2005). Breath regulation can also help to remove ruminating thoughts of the past by learning to let it go in favour of present-centred awareness (Crain et al., Reference Crain, Schonert-Reichl and Roeser2017). Mindfulness exercises such as breath work have been found to help teachers cope better with conflict situations and anxiety in their classroom practice (Napoli, Reference Napoli2004), and these facets assist with the development of resilience attributes.

Mindfulness training such as body scan exercises help teachers to develop a sense of self-awareness and self-empowerment with their bodily reaction. This level of awareness enables teachers to check in with their body and the associated emotions, which provides options to teachers to make choices on how to proactively deal with the situations in the moment in a calm and positive manner. During the body scan, teachers observe and notice body sensations and attend to each part of the body, beginning with the toes and moving all the way up to the top of the head to notice all body parts (toes, feet, lower legs, knees, thighs, belly, shoulders, arms, fingers, head and face). During the body scan exercise, sensory systems are activated to develop an awareness of smells and sounds inside and outside the body while focusing on an awareness of the present moment (Napoli, Reference Napoli2004). Awareness of parts of the body helps teachers to recognise when they feel stressed, and through the process of embodiment they can develop a sense of awareness in the body to feel the stress without reaction, with the notion of using the breath to bring awareness to the situation (Crain et al., Reference Crain, Schonert-Reichl and Roeser2017). Although mindfulness may result in being more physical and mentally relaxed, the main goal of mindfulness is to become aware of the body and mind in the present moment and to slow down racing thoughts, decrease muscle tension, and slow down breathing and heart rate (Hooker & Foder, Reference Hooker and Fodor2008). The ability to apply these techniques promotes emotional regulation, which then enhances the function of the prefrontal cortex to make choices from a clearer perspective, thus reducing the physiological and psychological consequences that can occur when reaction and responding in a stressful state (Tillott, Reference Tillott2019).

Using body scan and breathing training exercises for preservice and inservice teachers fosters a range of mindfulness skills, as illustrated in Figure 2. These skills include: attention; self-awareness; self-acceptance; self-regulation; emotional regulation; empathy; compassion; positive outlook; openness to new information; flexibility; observing, describing, and labelling with words; and accepting without judgment. These skills also help develop the core attributes that underpin resilience (Ardiati, Reference Ardiati2019; Bernay, Reference Bernay2012, Reference Bernay2014; Taylor et al., Reference Taylor, Harrison, Haimovitz, Oberle, Thomson, Schonert-Reichi and Roeser2016; Tillott, Reference Tillott2019). A key skill gained from practising mindfulness is emotional regulation, which is important because it facilitates a teacher’s sense of mastery and protects their wellbeing (Emerson et al., Reference Emerson, Leyland, Hudson, Rowse, Hanley and Hugh-Jones2017). Role-modelling is the ability to cope with stress in this way and becomes a beneficial exercise for students to apply the same techniques used by their teachers (Tillott, Reference Tillott2019). Hue and Lau (Reference Hue and Lau2015) have also identified four key mindfulness skills that preservice teachers gain from using mindful strategies, which included the capacity to slow down the pace of everyday life, develop a sense of compassion, enjoy the here and now, be present in the moment, and gain increasing awareness of internal changes in body and mind.

Based on the overall research evidence presented, several potential positive outcomes for inservice and preservice teachers’ practice of mindfulness-resilience can be seen in Figure 2. Mindfulness has the potential to: alleviate teacher stress; reduce the risk of burnout; enhance wellbeing, calmness and clarity (Brown, Reference Brown2017; Werner & Gross, Reference Werner, Gross and Gross2009); and reduce negative emotions (Baer, Reference Baer2003; Beitel et al., Reference Beitel, Ferrer and Cecero2005; Brown & Ryan, Reference Brown and Ryan2003; Shapiro et al., Reference Shapiro, Oman, Thoresen, Plante and Flinders2008). Incorporating mindfulness exercises into schools and teacher education programs may benefit preservice and inservice teachers’ wellbeing by helping them increase their self-awareness, attend to the present moment, and cope strategically with stress and build resilience (Tillot & Neumann, Reference Tillott and Neumann2020). Addressing teacher wellbeing is an educational priority across the world, and a strategy such as mindfulness is a low-cost, positive, enjoyable and practical way for school psychologists and counsellors to provide additional support to teachers and help cultivate resilience and coping skills.

Practical Recommendations for Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools

Practical evidence-based strategies can be a useful tool for both psychologist and counsellors in schools to support teachers’ wellbeing, with the notion of reducing burnout and building resilience. The opportunity to support teachers’ wellbeing indirectly becomes protective for children in the way of supporting a stable and calm environment (Grotberg, Reference Grotberg1997). Teachers who are well resourced with personal resources (e.g., motivation, efficacy), contextual resources (trusting work relationships), and effective strategies (e.g., self-care, work-life balance, and mindfulness) are more likely to be resilient in challenging situations and experience positive wellbeing (Hwang et al., Reference Hwang, Bartlett, Greben and Hand2017). Practising mindfulness strategies has the potential to reduce stress and anxiety and can create a respectful and peaceful class environment and improve self-regulation behaviours (e.g., Emerson et al., Reference Emerson, Leyland, Hudson, Rowse, Hanley and Hugh-Jones2017; Rupprecht et al., Reference Rupprecht, Paulus and Walach2017). Recommendations for psychologist and counsellors for preservice and inservice teacher’s use of mindfulness to achieve growth of mindfulness skills and resilience are presented below.

• Mindfulness-resilience training for teachers should be tailored to meet the diverse needs of teachers. Activities should encourage teachers to: breathe and listen mindfully, engage in guided relaxation exercises to reduce stress, avoid negative self-talk, stay in the present, pause before reacting, generate kindness, and practise self-care (Brown, Reference Brown2017). Ongoing booster training sessions should be provided by schools to maintain the practice of mindfulness (Bernay et al., Reference Bernay, Graham, Devich, Rix and Rubie-Davies2016).

• Breath and body scan exercises are recommended because they are popular and enjoyable exercises. They are also effective, low cost, and easy to learn and apply in the classroom (Bernay, Reference Bernay2014; Hue & Lau, Reference Hue and Lau2015; Klingbeil & Renshaw, Reference Klingbeil and Renshaw2018; McKeering & Hwang, Reference McKeering and Hwang2019). Body scan awareness exercises should involve somatic and tension awareness, basic breath awareness practice, and promotion of mindfulness of thoughts and emotions (Jenning et al., Reference Jennings, Frank, Snoberg, Coccia and Greenberg2013; Taylor et al., Reference Taylor, Harrison, Haimovitz, Oberle, Thomson, Schonert-Reichi and Roeser2016).

• Teachers should be encouraged to embrace, embody and practise resilience formation through mindfulness in their work and home environment to become effective at utilising mindfulness strategies in their classroom (Albrecht et al., Reference Albrecht, Albrecht and Cohen2012; Hooker & Fodor, Reference Hooker and Fodor2008). Teachers benefit from encouragement to engage in regular daily practice of mindfulness during everyday activities (Bailey et al., Reference Bailey, Owen, Hassed, Chambers, Jones and Wootten2018; Brown, Reference Brown2017; Yaari et al., Reference Yaari, Sheehan, Oberklaid and Hiscock2019) and practise being more aware of their internal senses and external environment (Hooker & Foder, Reference Hooker and Fodor2008).

• Several mindfulness apps are available for teachers such as the Headspace app (Headspace, 2019) and Smiling Mind app (Smiling Mind, 2019). For example, the Smiling Mind app has been well received by schools and used as a wellbeing resource in the classroom, and has been found to improve concentration, sleep and wellbeing and reduce teacher stress (Yaari et al., Reference Yaari, Sheehan, Oberklaid and Hiscock2019).

• Finally, based on review studies conducted to date on teachers and mindfulness, it was found that some studies had limitations because they lacked rigorous methodological design, such as a lack of fidelity checks and control groups, had small sample sizes, and had a lack of details of the time participants spent practising mindfulness outside formal training sessions (e.g., Hwang et al., Reference Hwang, Bartlett, Greben and Hand2017; Klingbeil & Renshaw, Reference Klingbeil and Renshaw2018; Schussler et al., Reference Schussler, Deweese, Rasheed, Demauro, Brown, Greenberg. and Jennings2018). This suggests that further empirical research on the validity of mindfulness programs for teachers is needed to provide greater generalisability of the findings and benefits for teachers’ wellbeing. In addition, further research is required to understand the relationship between teachers, mindfulness, and resilience.