This D.Phil. thesis from Oxford deals with the tithe, dekate, and the first-fruits, aparche, in ancient Greece. In its eight chapters J. examines the vocabulary, the religious mentality and the different types and contexts of gifts for the gods. According to J. the aparchai and dekatai differ from traditional offerings like anathemata or agalmata in so far as they represent a special share of the proceeds from a variety of activities: agriculture, trade, handicrafts, seafaring, military success, etc. As such they were presented to the gods ‘after some success or benefit was obtained, and not in anticipation of divine favours to come’ (p. 2). By studying the nature of the given goods and their contexts, J. aims at gaining insight into the religious mentality and ritual practice of gift-giving in ancient Greece. Her main argument rests on one fundamental feature of the Greek ‘votive religion’. As opposed to the gift-relationships between mortals, gifts to the gods did not oblige the gods to grant a favour, but they did oblige the worshipper.
This study is highly informative. The introduction provides a survey of the anthropological and historical studies concerning the first fruits, such as the evolutionary concepts of the nineteenth century and the sociological approaches of E. Durkheim, M. Gluckman and R. Firth, who stress their social function in avoiding conflicts, and the ecological explanation of C. Savary. However, neither the anthropological approaches nor the historical studies, which started with H. Beer's dissertation ‘Aparche und verwandte Begriffe in griechischen Weihinschriften’ (1914), offered a convincing concept for J.'s own research. She therefore decided to combine a terminological approach with the theory of gift-giving as a relationship of debt, developed by M. Godelier.
The investigation starts with a semantic analysis of the vocabulary of aparche, aparchesthai and related terms argmata, apargmata, akrothinion and dekate (Chapter 1). Many terms can be related to the sacrifice of animals. The verbum aparchesthai (and katarchesthai) is first attested in the context of sacrifice. In the Homeric epics the word refers to the ‘opening sacrificial rite of cutting some of an animal's hair as a first offering to be burnt in the fire to a god’ (pp. 29; 42). The noun aparche is not attested in the epics. However, another term, argamata, refers to this rite of cutting the animal's hair or presenting a portion of flesh for the gods (p. 30). This also corresponds to the meaning of apargmata in post-Homeric times (p. 39). The earliest attestation of the noun aparche is to be found in Herodotus (p. 36), who uses the term in dedicatory contexts. But the term is also attested in the context of sacrificial rites and there aparche delineates the preliminary portion of a sacrificed animal, which belongs to the gods or to the priests (p. 37). A special term, akrothinion, denotes the first portion of the spoil (p. 46). The term dekate, literally a tithe or a tenth part, belongs to the financial administration of the sanctuaries and the cities. It can refer to a cult payment required of tenants of sacred land and to non-religious payments like taxes or dues (p. 47). The verbum dekateuein is used in military, political and religious contexts and refers to the offering of a tithe from booty and revenues (p. 48). The secular context thus represents the main difference between aparche and dekate (p. 52).
In the second chapter, ‘Religious Mentality and First Offerings’, J. discusses the motivation and reasons that stand behind the presentation of first-fruits to the gods and to the authorities of a city. In this context, she develops her concept of a debt-relationship between worshippers and gods. She argues against the idea of interpreting first-fruits practices as thanks-giving rituals or expressions of a ‘do-ut-des’ mentality. Her argument is that first fruits for the gods were given after receiving a favour, not in hope of a gift.
The following three chapters examine the different contexts of first-fruits, in particular agricultural activities, common and daily meals and the military. Most first offerings of agricultural products (Chapter 3) were given during Athenian and Attic festivals like the Proerosia, the Thargelia, the Pyanopsia, the Thalysia and Pithoigia. J. interprets the offerings as a kind of ‘insurance’ to minimise risks and hazards in agrarian societies, where hailstorms, frost, drought and rain could easily ruin the whole crop. First offerings at meals (Chapter 4) included liquid and solid food, and could be given daily or at common feasts. J. argues that the concept of hospitality (xenia) might have provided the framework for imagining the relations between men and gods (p. 126). Military first offerings (Chapter 6), mostly called dekatai, are well attested in inscriptions, but the exact share of the gods in the booty is rarely specified. J. rather interprets these first offerings as a strategy aimed at gaining control over the distribution of the booty and securing cohesion among the soldiers (p. 202).
Most illuminating is Chapter 5, which deals with the practice of individual or private offerings, dedicated by men and women. Attestations of first offerings made by individuals vary widely between different Greek regions. J. counts 350 attestations in Attica, which are called aparchai in 80 cases, dekatai in 64 cases, and once apargma. In Cyrene, she identifies 58 dekatai, and in Rhodes 35 dekatai, 17 aparchai and one akrothinion. Usually the inscriptions mention just the names of the dedicators and the god to whom the offering is made. In some cases the activities of the dedicators can be identified. In Athens some inscriptions preserve the word kerameus (potter), knapheus (fuller) or strategos. In other regions the dedications are connected with athletic victory, seafaring, manumission or weaving. According to J., only a few of the first offerings mark a fulfilment of a vow; while aparchai and dekatai were normally expressions of gratitude after successful endeavour.
In the last two chapters, J. discusses the political and financial dimension of first-fruit practices, especially the relationship between donor and recipient in the context of aparchai and phoroi, i.e. tributes (Chapter 7: ‘A Network of Aparchai: Religion, Politics, and Power’). The main textual source is the Eleusinian first-fruits decree, instituted in 413 or 430 b.c. This decree must be interpreted in the context of Athenian grain politics during the Peloponnesian War, showing that not only the Athenians sent a fixed share of their crop to Eleusis, but other cities of the Delian League were also obliged to pay a grain-tax. Together with the spread of this grain-tax, one can also observe the dissemination of the myth of Triptolemus, inventor of the plough. Whereas the myth emphasised ‘the other Greeks’ dependence on Athens for the gift of agriculture’, J. argues that, ‘in reality Athens had an overwhelming concern for, or reliance on, other cities’ supply of grain’ (p. 216).
The last chapter (Chapter 8: ‘A/eparchai and Dekatai in Cult Finance’) throws light on the ways in which the sanctuaries who received the first-fruits benefited from this custom. J. is able to draw conclusions from a plethora of epigraphic evidence. She discusses the cult fees and taxes levied on the worshippers in different areas of the Greek-speaking world, for example at Olbia, Patara in Lycia and Athens. The fees and taxes are often mentioned in the context of seafaring, pastoralism or social activities like marriages. The fee consisted of a payment made in coins or – more often – a share of the meat of the sacrificial victim (p. 252).
This study fills a gap in the research on gift-giving in ancient Greece. J. has collected a wealth of evidence from different sources and presented it comprehensibly and transparently. However, I cannot agree with all the given explanations; above all I missed considerations regarding gender differences in the dedication practices, especially female rituals like the plynteria. The ritual of washing the statue of Athena would give a better explanation for the rich dedication of Smikythe, the plyntria, than the idea of a retirement dedication of an old ‘washerwoman’ (p. 140). Nevertheless, J. has created a solid material basis and given valuable and original impulses for future research in the field. I am grateful for her contribution.
