Yield and characteristics of quail meat

It has been reported that the optimal slaughter age of Japanese quail is 42 days (Tserveni-Gousi and Yannakopoulos, Reference TSERVENI-GOUSI and YANNAKOPOULOS1986; ElFull, 2000; Alkan et al., Reference ALKAN, KARABAG, GALIC, KARSLI and BALCIOGLU2010; Reis, Reference REIS2011). Slaughter yield ranges between 64 and 65%, the relative proportion of breast meat is 33%, leg meat is 21% of grill weight and the water holding capacity of the meat is reported to be better from female quail (Genchev et al., Reference GENCHEV, MIHAYLOVA, RIBARSKI, PAVLOV and KABAKCHIEV2008). El-Full (Reference EL-FULL2000) studied the effects of slaughter age and sex on carcass composition of quail and suggested that the appropriate slaughter age to maximise economic traits was six weeks, since birds had higher dressing and protein percentages. At six weeks of age, two lines of quail, the S-line and C-line from selected and unselected populations, respectively had similar carcass yields, but the S-line quail had a higher carcass weight (Oğuz et al., 1996). In analysing the effect of sex on carcass characteristics of quail, it was found that, while carcass weight was similar, meat yield from males was significantly greater than females, where the breast and legs constituted a major proportion of body weight, 35% for males and 32% for females, with no influence of sex on these characteristics (Tserveni-Gousi and Yannakopoulos, Reference TSERVENI-GOUSI and YANNAKOPOULOS1986).

In a similar study conducted in a semi arid area of Nigeria, Raji et al. (Reference RAJI, GIRGIRI, ALADE and JAURO2015) found that the dressed percentage of quail was significantly higher in males (72%) compared to females (68%), where females had significantly higher live weight. In Bobwhite quail meat protein, fat and moisture were comparable between the two sexes and birds aged 10 to 18 weeks (Dawson et al., Reference DAWSON, YORK, AMON, KULENKAMP and COLEMAN1971). Wilkanowska and Kokoszyński (Reference WILKANOWSKA and KOKOSZYŃSKI2011) estimated that the dressing percentage of Pharaoh quail was 64% at 33 days and 66% at 42 days and found that the latter had lower values of sensory meat properties than the former, except when considering aroma. In mass selection of three lines of Japanese quail for increased live body weight, Caron et al. (Reference CARON, MINVIELLE, DESMARAIS and POSTE1990) noticed that the lines with higher live and carcass weights had more abdominal fat and the line with lower live and carcass weights had higher protein percentages in the Pectoralis major and thigh muscles, with lower relative losses due to cooking (drip loss).

In an investigation on the effect of short-term selection in Japanese quail, Khaldari et al. (Reference KHALDARI, PAKDEL, YEGANE, JAVAREMI and BERG2010) found high genetic and phenotypic correlations between week four body weight and carcass traits. Maiorano et al. (Reference MAIORANO, KNAGA, WITKOWSKI, CIANCIULLO and BEDNARCZYK2011) studied the growth performance and cholesterol content of Japanese quail and found that the meat of the birds selected (during generation 17) for low cholesterol in the egg yolk contained 37% lower cholesterol than that those selected for high cholesterol in the egg yolk, and recommended that the quail selected for low yolk cholesterol content to reduce cholesterol in the meat, and stated that this would have advantages from the human nutrition point of view.

In pedigreed quail, heritability estimates were high for body weight (BW) and breast yield (BRY), and moderate for abdominal fat yield (AFY), and high genetic correlations were observed between BW and BRY or AFY, indicating that selection for BW can improve the breast percentage but also increase fat pad (Narinc et al., Reference NARINC, AKSOY, KARAMAN, AYGUN, FIRAT and USLU2013).

While comparing P line Japanese quail selected for high four week body weights on a normal 28% CP diet and the unselected base population (C line) from which the P line originated, Marks (Reference MARKS1993) observed increased lipid content, decreased water and protein content in P line carcases. Line differences for carcass traits were lesser from 0 to 21 days, but became significant at 28 and 42 days. In male Japanese quail, increases in dietary protein concentrations decreased the water content of the carcass with an increase in carcass protein content, while low protein diets increased fat levels (Kirkpinar and Oğuz, 1995). It has been reported that quail carcass composition is not affected by the sex or weight of the bird, but Raji et al. (Reference RAJI, GIRGIRI, ALADE and JAURO2015) determined that the breast meat from females was higher in protein and dry matter compared to those from males. Additionally Genchev et al. (Reference GENCHEV, RIBARSKI, AFANASJEV and BLOHIN2006) found that the meat of Faraon quail has higher dry matter and protein and less fat compared to the meat of the White English breed. The meat of the White English breed was characterised by its better capacity for technological processing due to the lower loss of moisture. In Japanese quails, the amount of breast meat varied between 22-23.4% and leg meat was 20.5-20.9% while the fat content was 2.2- 2.8% and 3.3-3.4% in breast and leg meat respectively (Genchev et al., Reference GENCHEV, MIHAYLOVA, RIBARSKI, PAVLOV and KABAKCHIEV2008). Hamm and Ang (Reference HAMM and ANG1982) examined the nutrient composition of the meat of Coturnix coturnix (Japanese quail), Colinus virginianus (eastern Bob White) and Colinus virginianus (wild Bob White) and found that Bob White quail were larger and yielded a higher percentage of deboned, deskinned meat (69% vs. 61%) due mainly to heavier, fattier skin on the Japanese quail. All breeds examined were excellent sources of vitamin B6 (0.52-0.68 mg/100g raw meat), niacin (6.0-10.3 mg/100g), thiamin (0.10-0.17 mg/100g), pantothenic acid (0.66-1.10 mg/100g) and riboflavin (0.16-0.50 mg/100g).

Japanese quail meat was found to be rich in essential amino acids, with 8.5% in leg muscles and 9.1% in breast meat, i.e. about 41% of meat proteins. Lysine and methionine comprised 12.4% breast meat and 12.7% leg meat protein. With regard to the fatty acid profile, the sum of oleic, palmitic, linoleic and stearic acids accounted for 88.3% of total lipids in the breast meat and leg meat. The omega 6:3 ratio was 15.3:1 in breast meat and 16.65:1 in leg meat (Genchev et al., Reference GENCHEV, MIHAYLOVA, RIBARSKI, PAVLOV and KABAKCHIEV2008).

Female quail meat had higher C18:1, C18:2, and C18:0 content with a PUFA:SFA ratio of 0.43, whilst male quail meat had higher C16:0 content with a ratio of 0.40. This data suggested that Japanese quail meat might be more suitable for prevention of heart diseases in human consumers because of the high C18:1 content and the PUFAs and SFAs ratios, which are in accordance with WHO recommendations (Gecgel et al., Reference GECGEL, YILMAZ, GURCAN, KARASU and DULGER2015). In a similar study, Sartowska et al. (Reference SARTOWSKA, KORWIN-KOSSAKOWSKA, POLAWSKA, LIPINSKA and SENDER2014) found that oleic, linoleic and α-linolenic acids were significantly higher in female Japanese quail meat, while palmitic, stearic and arachidonic acids were significantly higher in meat from males, indicating that sex had a marked influence on the fatty acid profile. The n6:n3 fatty acid ratio increased from 22.9 in second generation to 30.0 in fourth generation. By comparison, in commercial chickens, the n6:n3 fatty acid ratio was 18.5 in skin-off breasts (Rule et al., Reference RULE, BROUGHTON, SHELLITO and MAIORANO2002), 20.0 in skin-on breasts and 18.8 in skin-on legs (Ayerza et al., Reference AYERZA, COATES and LAURIA2002).

Marketing Japanese quail meat

Though there is a demand for quail meat, occasionally, many farmers face marketing problems due to lack of appreciable value. This is due to the fact that the per capita consumption of broiler chicken meat is the preferred non-vegetarian protein option and eaten in considerable quantities throughout the world, whereas quail meat consumption is only around 0.5 to 0.7 kg per month per family. Also, in developing countries, wet markets for broilers account for about 90% of sales, whereas the wet and frozen market for quail meat is not significant. Hence, the marketing of quail meat needs a proper strategy.

In a study on the consumption pattern of Japanese quail products in Chennai city, Thilakar and Sudeepkumar (Reference THILAKAR and SUDEEPKUMAR2005) reported that 82% of the respondents consumed 0.5 to 0.7 kg of quail meat per month and suggested that more outlets should be made available to meet the demand for quail meat, especially during holidays. In the assessment of the market potential for speciality meats in Louisiana and Texas, Hui and McLean-Meyinsse (Reference HUI and MCLEAN-MEYINSSE1997) observed that consumers preferred quail meat and the target market should be white males, retirees or those with higher household incomes, smaller households, or higher levels of education. For more successful marketing, it was suggested that marketing promotional activities could include developing new dishes or products. However, a detailed market study and campaign is needed to find the right niche and its exploration. At this juncture, value added meat could play a major role in improving the quail industry, which requires detailed research on the physicochemical and sensory properties as well as production economics. In an analysis of Japanese quail research, it was reported that available research had declined in the past ten years and better links between quail research and production were needed to promote relevant research and explore new avenues of production (Minvielle, Reference MINVIELLE2004).

Value addition of Japanese quail meat

In the recent past, the consumption of Japanese quail meat has significantly increased in developing regions, including southern parts of India, especially in Tamil Nadu. However, commercially there are no well-known quail meat product brands. Hence the introduction of value added and branded meat products would a good strategy to improve the market. During times where the consumer demand is lower, it would be more economical to convert the birds into ready-to-eat and ready-to-cook chilled/frozen products for export purpose and for marketing through supermarkets, fast food shops and restaurants.

Research pertaining to value added Japanese quail meat products are negligible worldwide. Ikhlas et al. (Reference IKHLAS, HUDA and NORYATI2011) prepared quail meat balls using various types of flour and stated this was successful as an alternative to other meats such as beef and chicken. The inclusion of pea flour in quail meat sausages at 15 g/kg offered the benefits of lighter colour, improved water holding capacity, water binding ability, and cook yield without significantly affecting the texture (Purohit et al., Reference PUROHIT, REED and MOHAN2016). Panda et al. (Reference PANDA, SINGH and ANAND1993) prepared battered deep-fat fried quail from carcases chilled in 0 or 5% sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) solution for 16 hours at 5±1ºC and packaged in different pouches. Meat was evaluated during frozen (-10ºC) storage where STPP treatment increased muscle pH, reduced shear value and inhibited lipid oxidation during storage, and weight loss and shear values were lower in high density polyethylene (HDPE)-packed than in low density polyethylene (LDPE)-packed samples. Both bacterial and fungal counts and sensory quality declined with storage time. However, the product from polyphosphate-treated carcases remained acceptable organoleptically for 60 days of storage as against 45 days in the control group, regardless of packaging materials. In other research, Bobwhite quail meat was processed at different chilling times, water agitation and chill water salt concentrations for the preparation of smoked meat. It was found that, regardless of chilling technique, tissue salt concentration increased in proportion with both chill time and brine concentration (Arafa et al., Reference ARAFA, JANKY, WILSON, OBLINGER and KOBURGER1979). In addition to these types of Japanese quail products others such as tandoori (Nair et al., Reference NAIR, RAO, CHAND, NAIR, PUTTARAJAPPA and AMLA1995; Pragati et al., Reference PRAGATI, KONDAIAH, SAIKIA, MANDAL, ANJANEYULU and SINGH2007 and Singh et al., Reference SINGH, TANWAR, GIRISH, SHARMA, SINGH and DIXIT2007), tikka (Bharti et al., Reference BHARTI, ANITA, DAS and BISWAS2011) and marinated dishes (Barbanti and Pasquini, Reference BARBANTI and PASQUINI2005) Yusop et al., Reference YUSOP, O'SULLIVAN, KERRY and KERRY2010; Reference YUSOP, O'SULLIVAN, KERRY and KERRY2012) could be developed from quail meat.

Spent Japanese quail meat- characteristics and value addition

Spent laying quail have lower ready-to-cook yield compared to the male breeders or quail-broilers (Singh and Panda, Reference SINGH and PANDA1987). Boni et al. (Reference BONI, NURUL and NORYATI2010) estimated that the total saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids were 25.8, 41.9 and 32.6% respectively for young quail meat and 29.1, 42.8 and 28.4% for spent quail meat. Additionally the meat from young quail contained significantly higher moisture, protein, and ash content compared to that of the meat from spent quails.

Tenderisation of spent Japanese quail meat

Numerous research studies have focussed on the tenderisation of meat from spent food animals, in particular with the application of natural tenderisers. The tenderisation effect of ginger extract on spent Japanese quail meat (Arjunan, Reference ARJUNAN2015) and spent hen meat (Naveena and Mendiratta, Reference NAVEENA and MENDIRATTA2001), papaya leaves on spent hen meat (Abdalla et al., Reference ABDALLA, ALI, SIDDIG and ALI2012), papain on spent hen meat cuts (Khanna and Panda, Reference KHANNA and PANDA2007), Flammulina velutipes-powder (winter mushroom) on spent-hen breast (Kang et al., Reference KANG, KIM, KIM, KANG, KIM, SEONG, CHO, PARK and KIM2012) and bromelain extract derived pineapple peel on various tough meats (Sunantha and Saroat, Reference SUNANTHA and SAROAT2011) has been shown in several studies.