The recent rise of anti-Semitism in Europe has been a serious concern especially for Jews living in Europe. Recent anti-Semitic violence has included the attacks in January 2015 at Charlie Hebdo in Paris, the 2006 kidnapping, torture, and murder of Ilan Halimi by the so-called Gang des Barbares, the slaughter of children at a Jewish day school by Mohammed Merah in 2012, and the carnage unleashed last year at the Jewish Museum of Brussels by French national Mehdi Nemmouche. The responses so far have reflected sorrow and fear. How can we comprehend the rampage and the mistrust between these two communities, Jewish and Muslim? At the January shooting at the Paris kosher grocery store, Hyper Cacher, ironically it was Lassana Bathily, a Muslim employee, who saved the Jews. This series of events has been perplexing, but must be analyzed and understood to see how one can arrive at solutions, self-criticism, and education.
Günther Jikeli's critical and timely sociological study examines the issue of European anti-Semitism through 117 interviews with young Muslim men, mainly from Asian, Arab, and Maghrebian descent, living in France, Germany, and Great Britain. The book is vital in its exploration of deep-rooted issues of anti-Semitism that have been harbored mainly among young male Muslim immigrants, who present variegated reasons for this prejudice. Jikeli classifies the types of anti-Semitism he encounters in his interviews, almost all of them intertwined: classic modern anti-Semitism, anti-Semitism related to Israel, anti-Semitism related to Islam, anti-Semitism without rationalization, and anti-Semitism related to perceptions of the Holocaust.
The author relies on theories based on the work of psychologists like Erich Fromm and thinkers like Deborah Lipstadt, but his research is primarily based on the sociological data from the 117 interviews. (Some prior studies by other sociologists are discussed in the chapter “Debates and Surveys.”) Jikeli illustrates how for his interviewees, the Jews play both a passive role—as scapegoats—and an active one, as powerful brokers of politics in the West and backers of various sides of the Middle East conflict. This investigation of the role of Muslims in the rise of anti-Semitism is a good manual for those who want to understand how some young Muslim men think about Jews in their own society as immigrants.
Jikeli should be commended for bringing the deep-rooted issues of anti-Semitism, and especially the denial, relativism, and unabashed support of the Holocaust, back to serious attention. The nature of the anti-Jewish violence of today has met with comparisons to Islamophobia in Europe; however, Jikeli, in a section of his book titled “Between Integration and Discrimination,” makes significant distinctions between the two, considering such things as the historical context of each group and anti-Semitic laws passed against Jews with the support of church and state. He argues that “a common generalized accusation against Muslims is their alleged refusal to integrate into German society, not the accusation [made against Jews] that they undermine society through assimilation” (28).
The author lays out certain points that he finds are commonly believed by the Muslim men that might add to the larger picture of anti-Semitism on the part of Muslims in general. The various interviews focus on religious tensions that begin with the time of the Prophet Mohammad and continue on to the creation of Israel. Israel and Jews are viewed as interchangeable and read as the main issue of contention for most of the interviewees. However, the issue of religious tension is more nebulous and is based on concepts of heresy or what these men have heard through their families, friends, and Muslim communities. The interviewees do not provide much evidence for their religious prejudice against Jews, which the author notes in his study. “Sabri emphasized that the enmity was related to religion and mentioned an alleged betrayal of Muhammad by the ‘the Jews’ but he was uncertain about this event” (136). The religious tensions described in the book by the interviewees are fueled by a “perception of hostility or even war between Muslims and Jews … sometimes based on references to the Qur'an, which allegedly predicts religious wars on a global scale between Muslims, Jews, and Christians” (140). These accounts can be confusing to readers since the author does not examine these verses in the Qur'an or the perceptions of these Muslim men. Jikeli's interviews are disconcerting (even though it is clear that he is providing data), and analysis of Islam or actual Qur'anic statements about Jews (whether negative or positive) is missing. Even though such responses and perceptions can be important in analyzing what is being said on the streets, it is crucial to a non-Muslim reader to be presented with how and where these young men obtain information. The question of violence and Islam is raised without a contextual or critical analysis.
Countering these perceptions, we are given five positive examples of Muslim men who are not deeply anti-Semitic but instead condemn prejudice and believe that all humans are equal. The author notes that these men may have been influenced by environmental conditions such as contact with Jews, other Muslims who are more positive toward Jews, living on the fringes of society themselves, or simply their living conditions as immigrants. As he notes: “What is their motivation? Why do they stand up against the hatred of Jews? Is theirs an advanced emotional development as Erich Fromm might have suggested? Is it the positive influence of teachers, friends, or relatives? Is it a certain perception of Islam? Could it be attributed to a deep conviction that everybody is equal and to the belief in human rights?” (256). This particular analysis shows that Muslim anti-Semitism is not cemented in a monolithic ideology but is rather malleable in various conditions.
The following questions remain regarding the data gleaned in this research: what are the precise factors, conditions, and patterns by which these young men became anti-Semitic? In other words, how does one tackle this problem? “Interviewees provide evidence of various factors that have contributed to their anti-Semitic views, and no single factor necessarily leads to anti-Semitic attitudes.… Ultimately, adopting anti-Semitic stereotypes and ways of thinking is a choice (within social restrictions) made by individuals” (279). The study may be deepened by interviewing the subjects’ families and friends, Muslim women and their lives, and educators. Perhaps a fuller picture of the root of the issue or their lack of education and information would strengthen the research.
The most problematic aspect of Jikeli's depiction of anti-Semitism and Muslims is the assumption that most readers are objective about Islam. The presentation of data is useful, but a deeper context or review of scholarship on the Qur'an and different interpretations of Muslim-Jewish relations is absent. But during the high tide of anti-Semitism and Islamophobia, this is an important book for providing a nuanced taste of some of the ways that anti-Semitism exists in the Muslim world. As Jikeli notes, “Discussing Muslim antisemitism is politically challenging. It can be feared that naming the problem contributes to further stigmatization of Muslim minorities” (3).
