This volume examines the use of psychotropic substances in the Greek and Roman worlds. It is a valuable contribution to the field, highlighting the multiple uses of these substances – medical, religious, magical, artistic, intellectual and recreational – as well as the diversity of ancient attitudes and opinions regarding their use. To this end, S. draws on a wide range of ancient sources, including philosophical texts, medical treatises, agronomic works, plays and poems, creating a rich and multifaceted panorama of the subject.
Although some works have included discussions of psychotropic substances in antiquity since the 1930s, systematic research in this area has developed primarily since the late 1970s. Most investigations have focused on ritual, religious and magical uses of these substances. Several studies have also examined their medicinal uses, but research on recreational drug use in antiquity remains comparatively limited. Many works are devoted to specific plants – notably cannabis in the last decades – or to particular ancient authors, while broader studies are still rare. Thus, although S. does not delve deeply into each aspect of the topic, one of the book’s strengths lies in its broad approach to various forms of intoxication, drawing on key research in the English-speaking world, including important studies in the field of ethnobotany.
The book consists of an introduction and seven chapters. The introduction outlines the different uses and contexts of psychotropic substances, focusing mainly on plants and including substances derived from them, such as incense and wine – sometimes mixed with other psychotropic agents. S. demonstrates the variety of psychotropic substances and their origins – some imported, others cultivated or growing wild – and explains that many were widely accessible, while others, especially some recreational ones, were elitist (p. 4). He also briefly presents some of the ancient authors cited throughout the book.
Chapter 1 covers the mythical origins of drugs, portraying intoxication as a divine gift. S. observes that in Greek and Roman mythology drugs were often unnamed (p. 11) or have mythological names – such as the famous kykeon. Ancient authors speculated about which drugs were mentioned in mythical accounts. This chapter includes narratives from the Iliad and the Odyssey as well as references to the Eleusinian Mysteries and the cult of Dionysus. S. analyses Euripides’ Bacchae, highlighting the mind-altering experiences and hallucinations. He argues that Dionysus induces madness or mania and supports the theory – widely accepted among scholars – that this was not caused by wine intoxication alone but rather by psychotropic substances (p. 27).
Chapter 2 explores how ancient philosophy contributed to the development of botany and the codification of plants in the classical world. The chapter, engaging with specialised bibliography, also focuses on accusations of drug use surrounding the school of Socrates and the scandal involving Alcibiades and the profanation of the Eleusinian Mysteries. It revisits the ingredients of the kykeon, suggesting that it may have contained alkaloids, and draws parallels with other religious ritual traditions involving hallucinogenic plants, such as ayahuasca (p. 42). Additionally, it addresses magic involving plants, love potions and poisons. The discussion begins with Pliny the Elder’s critiques of magical practices and psychotropic drugs, then turns to poisoning trials and laws regulating the sale of psychotropic substances. Women are mentioned as practitioners of magic, for their controversial use of love potions and as poisoners. However, the book lacks an analysis of how gender relates to access and use of psychotropics in other contexts.
Chapters 3, 4 and 5 each focus on specific plants, all of which contain psychotropic alkaloids that cause intoxication. They follow a similar structure: a brief introduction to the plant, followed by extracts from various sources, presenting valuable textual evidence about their use and prescriptions, but without always offering overarching conclusions. Chapter 3 examines hellebore and its many uses. Known for its mind-altering effects, hellebore was prescribed to treat mental illness, especially madness. In some ancient texts, it was used as a metaphor to label someone as insane (p. 62), yet it was also used for recreational intoxication. Chapter 4 explores mandrake and other members of the nightshade family, such as thorn apple and deadly nightshade, which were known to induce visions, stupor and deep sleep. These plants were used in medicine, love magic and occasionally recreationally, although they were highly controversial due to their lethality. S. notes that ancient physicians such as Galen criticised their colleagues for the indiscriminate use of intoxicating substances and for causing overdoses in patients. Chapter 5 addresses psychotropic plants that were often mentioned in medical texts but less so in literature, including henbane, hemlock, opium, cannabis, frankincense and myrrh. S. makes an important contribution by examining less studied plants, demonstrating that they were common and accessible, and were sometimes added to wine for recreational purposes.
Chapter 6 turns to wine – the most widely used drug in antiquity – examining ancient attitudes to drinking and drunkenness. Wine was used in medicine, religion, magic and social recreation, forming part of everyday life in both Greek and Roman cultures. S. argues that, as part of a drinking culture, heavy intoxication – and its perceived effects – was socially acceptable (p. 121). Emphasising overindulgence, S. does not explore a lot of sources that criticise drunkenness, such as invectives in Juvenal or Martial, or funeral epigrams from Book 7 of the Greek Anthology dedicated to drunken women and men. Wine was not particularly potent, but psychotropic plants and minerals were often added at various stages of production to enhance flavour and potency. These additives could also be introduced deliberately before serving. S. claims that ‘everyone in the ancient world who drank wine used psychotropic substances’ (p. 122). Here he seems to align with the theory put forward by D.C.A. Hillman in The Chemical Muse. Drug Use and the Roots of Western Civilization (2008), which posits the widespread use of psychotropic substances by almost everyone in antiquity. While S.’s emphasis on the frequent inclusion of psychotropics in wine beyond medical or ritual contexts is valuable, the claim that all ancient wines contained such additives remains speculative and requires further documentary support. The chapter also presents scenes of wine intoxication and the use of pure wine, primarily drawn from Athenaeus, with brief references to authors such as Anacreon and Plutarch. Unfortunately, it neglects sources that relate drinking mixed or pure wine to identity issues: the ways of consuming wine symbolised distinctions between civilised and barbarian societies and could also be used as social criticism.
Chapter 7, the final chapter, explores other settings of intoxication, briefly touching on Roman parties and gatherings as described by Roman poets. Unfortunately, no sources from material culture are analysed, despite the existence of relevant iconographic material, such as Pompeian frescoes. Rather than concluding with a synthesis, S. closes by discussing modern biotechnological applications of psychedelic molecules. He highlights the growing trend of using psychotropic drugs to treat mental symptoms in modern biotechnology, inferring that the ancient world had similar applications (p. 148).
In conclusion, the volume is a significant contribution for those seeking an overview of the use of psychotropic substances in classical antiquity. Drawing from a wide range of sources and periods, the book reveals a multiplicity of uses and perspectives that transcend normative, medical or religious frameworks. Despite the complexity of the topic, S. presents the material in clear, accessible prose, making this an interesting and useful book.
