Physical, social, and psychological stressors

An extensive body of literature testifies to the impact that the Antarctic environment can have on human functioning. By reviewing medical records relating to Australian Antarctic personnel over a 10 year period Lugg (Reference Lugg2000) identified that the five most frequent physiological conditions experienced in Antarctica related to injuries and poisonings, respiratory complaints, damage/irritation of skin and subcutaneous tissue, disruptions to the nervous system and sensory organ functioning, and gastrointestinal disturbances. Additional physiological symptoms included alterations in endocrine function (which can result in Polar T3 Syndrome), reduced cardiovascular fitness associated with decreased physical activity (particularly during the winter), and diminished levels of immunity which can result in greater vulnerability to illness when exposure occurs (e.g. during personnel change over periods, and return to home country; Lugg Reference Lugg2000). There is also evidence that indicates physiological disturbances can be exacerbated by the social and psychological stressors experienced (Francis et al. Reference Francis, Gleeson, Lugg, Clancy, Ayton, Donovan, McConnell, Tingate, Thorpe and Watson2002).

Numerous studies have identified that one of the primary challenges associated with extended Antarctic residence involves individual adjustment to the physical and social environment with its lack of physical, psychological, and social novelty for extended periods, enforced confinement with people not of one’s choosing, limited privacy, and the absence of social support from family and friends (e.g. Palmai Reference Palmai1963, Suedfeld & Steel Reference Suedfeld and Steel2000). In particular, the effects of separation from family and friends, especially intimate partners, have been reported as a major stressor for expeditioners (Taylor Reference Taylor1973) and are a common reason for seeking counselling from the station medical officer (Palmai Reference Palmai1963). Furthermore, researchers have indicated that prolonged isolation from family and friends may precipitate mood or adjustment disorders in expeditioners (Palinkas et al. Reference Palinkas, Carvalho and Browner1995, Palmai Reference Palmai1963), and may also exacerbate pre-existing conditions including personality or substance use disorders (Strange & Youngman Reference Strange and Youngman1971) that were not identified in the selection process.

Despite careful screening and selection procedures that preclude selection of personnel with vulnerability to psychiatric conditions or personality disorders (based on current presentation or history of instability; Grant et al. Reference Grant, Eriksen, Marquis, Orre, Palinkas and Suedfeld2007) and prioritise individuals with characteristics and resources suitable for wintering in Antarctica (e.g. ability, stability, and compatibility, Taylor Reference Taylor1969, Grant et al. Reference Grant, Eriksen, Marquis, Orre, Palinkas and Suedfeld2007), research indicates that a proportion of expeditioners will experience psychological distress associated with Antarctic residence. Whilst the incidence of symptoms sufficient to fulfil DSM-IV diagnostic criteria are rare (c. 4–5% of expeditioners; Lugg Reference Lugg1991), mood, adjustment, and sleep related disorders account for 60% of these diagnoses (Lugg Reference Lugg2005, Palinkas et al. Reference Palinkas, Carvalho and Browner1995). Additionally, subsyndromal symptoms of depression, insomnia, anxiety (Strange & Youngman Reference Strange and Youngman1971), aggressive behaviour, difficulty in concentration and memory (Palinkas et al. Reference Palinkas, Carvalho and Browner1995), and the occurrence of mild fugue states have been associated with the winter in Antarctica, and are often referred to as the “winter-over syndrome” (Palinkas Reference Palinkas1991, Palinkas et al. Reference Palinkas, Carvalho and Browner1995). Another pattern of psychological responses to Antarctic residence has been labelled the ‘third quarter phenomenon’ (Bechtel & Berning Reference Bechtel and Berning1991) and refers to seasonal variations in mood, psychosomatic complaints, interpersonal interactions, and work performance with negative symptoms peaking shortly after midwinter (approximately the third quarter of employment duration) and resolving towards the end of the winter (Palinkas et al. Reference Palinkas, Carvalho and Browner1995). However, empirical evidence supporting the existence of specific, critical phases in adaptation to the Antarctic environment has been equivocal (Palinkas et al. Reference Palinkas, Gunderson and Holland2000, Reference Palinkas, Glogower, Dembert, Hansen and Smullen2004).

Salutogenic effects of Antarctic employment

More recently, researchers have identified the experience of salutogenic (i.e. adaptive and health promoting) effects associated with Antarctic employment, particularly in individuals employed for summer positions which are typically shorter in duration and with better weather conditions (Sandal et al. Reference Sandal, Leon and Palinkas2006). Specific positive outcomes associated with Antarctic employment experience have included increased levels of self-reliance (Palinkas Reference Palinkas1991), self-efficacy (Kahn & Leon Reference Kahn and Leon1994), self-growth and personal discovery (Oliver Reference Oliver1991, Mocellin & Suedfeld Reference Mocellin and Suedfeld1991), cooperativeness, and striving towards important or challenging goals (Suedfeld Reference Suedfeld2002). Expeditioners have also been reported to make frequent reference to the positive effects engendered by the grandeur of the physical environment, the experiences of camaraderie and support amongst station members, and the sense of achievement in overcoming the challenges of the Antarctic environment (Mocellin & Suedfeld Reference Mocellin and Suedfeld1991), with many considering their Antarctic residence as one of the best experiences of their life (Oliver Reference Oliver1991). Furthermore, evidence indicates that expeditioners experience long-term positive effects that persist after their return from Antarctica (Suedfeld & Steel Reference Suedfeld and Steel2000) including fewer hospitalisations (Palinkas Reference Palinkas1986), greater commitment to family, increased desire and ability to undertake roles of responsibility, and aspirations to contribute to the wider community (Taylor & Shurley Reference Taylor and Shurley1971, Taylor Reference Taylor1973).

Results detailing the short and long-term positive effects engendered by working in Antarctica indicate that the physical, psychological, and social challenges associated with Antarctic employment are not inherently detrimental to expeditioner functioning and performance. Thus despite an early emphasis on pathology, more recent research has documented the salutogenic effects associated with working in Antarctica, providing a more balanced and comprehensive understanding of this experience. However, the processes of psychological adaptation and resilience and their relationship to positive and negative change have not received adequate attention within existing Antarctic literature, nor have experiences of Antarctic employment outside the expeditioners’ time ‘on the ice’. Identification of the salient predictors of resilience and articulation of the mechanisms linking them to adaptive outcomes will enable proactive prevention and intervention strategies to focus on enhancing this capacity throughout Antarctic employment, from pre-departure through reunion and reintegration.

The pre-departure period

The pre-departure (or pre-deployment) period extends from when an expeditioner begins preparations for undertaking employment in Antarctica through to their physical departure from Australia. Whilst task specific training typically begins two to three months prior to departure, preparation for the experience may begin up to 18 months or more prior to the event when the prospective expeditioner first contemplates working in Antarctica. Thus for some expeditioners the duration of the pre-departure period exceeds the length of time they spend working within Antarctica. The implications of this for the experience of Antarctic employment for expeditioners are unknown as limited formal research has investigated the pre-departure period within Antarctic populations. However, the research that does exist typically contrasts Antarctic populations with non-Antarctic populations. Such research indicates that expeditioners report fewer subjective health complaints than normative populations (Grant et al. Reference Grant, Eriksen, Marquis, Orre, Palinkas and Suedfeld2007), although this may be an artefact of the selection process eliminating those not physically capable of undertaking Antarctic employment, and also report higher levels of introversion, agreeableness, and intelligence whilst lower levels of anxiety (Butcher & Ryan Reference Butcher and Ryan1974). However, research on other populations experiencing vocational absences (e.g. military personnel, deep sea fishers, oil rig workers) indicates that the pre-departure period can pose unique challenges that require successful negotiation in order to maximize their performance and well-being whilst away.

Research into military deployments, which parallel Antarctic employments in that they involve prolonged periods of absence from family and friends, indicates that the pre-departure period poses unique demands on both military personnel and their social networks. It can engender significant negative symptoms (e.g. sadness, frustration, resentment, and guilt) which can result in both physical and emotional withdrawal between the soldier and their family, particularly romantic partners (Hill Reference Hill1949). In addition to the potential of such negative emotional states to reduce access to social support from family members and others close to the individual, a protracted period in which negative emotions prevail can limit opportunities for future positive adaptation (Fredrickson Reference Fredrickson2001).

The absence period

The absence (or deployment) period refers to the time spent in Antarctica and has been the employment phase most extensively researched. Research investigating the affective patterns demonstrated by expeditioners during their time ‘on the ice’ has been equivocal. Although some researchers noted small but significant increases in negative affect between early and late phases of Antarctic absences (Palinkas et al. Reference Palinkas, Carvalho and Browner1995), others reported that negative experiences associated with Antarctic residence generally decrease after the mid-point of the absence period (which often coincides with the mid-point of the winter) (Palinkas et al. Reference Palinkas, Carvalho and Browner1995). More recently it has been demonstrated that affective patterns fluctuate over the absence period, with an increase in anxiety noted in the month prior to return (Norris et al. Reference Norris, Paton and Ayton2008). Fluctuations in affect have been attributed to tensions associated with repeated interactions with individuals not of one’s own choosing (Taylor Reference Taylor1969), variations in circadian rhythms in response to environmental conditions including light–dark cycles (Broadway & Arendt Reference Broadway and Arendt1988), organizational conflicts, and emotional deprivation associated with separation from family and friends (Palinkas et al. Reference Palinkas, Carvalho and Browner1995). Similar difficulties in identifying a consistent pattern of psychological disruption in the absent individual have been documented in other populations experiencing extended vocational absences (Busuttil & Busuttil Reference Busuttil and Busuttil2001), although research into military populations has demonstrated a positive correlation between length of deployment and level of distress (Castro et al. Reference Castro, Bienvenu, Huffman and Adler1999).

The impact of absence experiences on subsequent phases of Antarctic employment (i.e. reunion and reintegration) has not been extensively documented. However, expeditioners report positive experiences more frequently than negative experiences during the absence period (Wood et al. Reference Wood, Hysong and Lugg2000). This is an important finding in terms of long-term outcomes associated with Antarctic employment when considered in terms of the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. This theory argues that the experience of positive emotions helps to develop enduring and adaptive personal resources (Fredrickson Reference Fredrickson2001) which may facilitate resilience and growth outcomes in Antarctic populations.

The reunion period

Traditionally the period following return from Antarctica has been termed the post-deployment phase. However, recent research indicates that this is influenced by the amount of time that has elapsed since being in Antarctica (Norris Reference Norris2009). For this reason we will consider it in terms of two distinct phases of adjustment - reunion and reintegration.

The reunion period refers to when the expeditioner returns home from Antarctica, and continues until routine activities such as work, are resumed (generally one–two months). The readjustment to society upon return from Antarctica can be challenging (Oliver 1979), but the processes of negotiating this phase (and the impact of previous phases) of employment have not been extensively documented.

Other populations that undergo extended vocational separations and these reunion and reintegration processes are partially influenced by the behavioural strategies adopted by family and friends during the absence period (Busuttil & Busuttil Reference Busuttil and Busuttil2001). Individuals who adopt less adaptive strategies during the absence period (e.g. denial) are more likely to experience difficulties during the reunion and reintegration process, whereas those who adopted more adaptive strategies (e.g. problem-focused strategies) are likely to experience fewer difficulties (Busuttil & Busuttil Reference Busuttil and Busuttil2001). Other authors have argued that the reunion phase of an employment experience is akin to a ‘honeymoon period’ in which relationships are temporarily shielded from the potential challenges (Boswell et al. Reference Boswell, Boudreau and Tichy2005) associated with renewing relationship which have been deprived of routine physical and emotional interactions. During this period positive evaluations of the situation will be maximized whilst negative evaluations will be minimized. As a result there is a high potential for unrealistic expectations for both the returning expeditioner as well as those close to them (i.e. family and friends) in short and long-term plans (Busuttil & Busuttil Reference Busuttil and Busuttil2001). Such differences may negatively impact longer-term relationship dynamics if they conflict.

Following the honeymoon period there is an increased risk of the expeditioner experiencing let-down phenomenon (Paton et al. Reference Paton, Smith and Violanti2000) where the individual experiences a sense of loss or ‘let-down’ once they enter more routine experiences (Paton et al. Reference Paton, Smith and Violanti2000). Research has found that longer, more intense experiences within the action phase of employment leads to greater ambivalence once this ends (Paton et al. Reference Paton, Smith and Violanti2000). Considering that Antarctic absences (particularly winter employment) can be more than 12 months, increasing the intensity of the experiences relating to individual, interpersonal, and environmental challenges, it is arguable that expeditioners may be particularly vulnerable to this condition.

The reintegration period

The reintegration period spans from reunion until the expeditioner has successfully re-adjusted to life at home, with some authors defining this period as the process of adjustment to the reunion (Busuttil & Busuttil Reference Busuttil and Busuttil2001). Although Hill reported as early as 1949 that both individual and family factors influenced adjustment processes upon return, limited formal research has investigated this beyond military populations. However, the data which does exist argues that a number of tasks must be achieved for successful reintegration to occur which may include regaining a balance between work and non-work activities, and renewing relationships and intimacies (Hill Reference Hill1949).

The renewal of relationships and intimacies following Antarctic absences can be challenging. One study found that at least one quarter of expeditioners experienced concurrent positive and negative challenges in their intimate relationships within 16 months of return (Taylor & McCormick Reference Taylor and McCormick1987). Research in other populations has identified that relationship distress and partner dissatisfaction can contribute to turnover intentions (Post et al. Reference Post, Ditomaso, Farris and Cordero2009). Considering the valuable resource that experienced expeditioners constitute, interventions to limit relationship distress may be an important addition to Antarctic employment support services. The Australian Antarctic Division currently addresses this issue by providing support and assistance to both expeditioners and partners throughout the Antarctic absence period and post-return. Furthermore, systematic research into the differential experience of the reintegration period for those expeditioners who seek employment elsewhere and those who continue to be engaged with the Antarctic research programmes is an important contextual factor that needs to be accommodated when examining the reintegration experience. This is highlighted by the possibility that for some continuing expeditioners the reintegration phase will coincide with the pre-departure phase of a subsequent employment period, the impact of which has not been afforded sufficient research attention.

Although research evidence suggests that some expeditioners experience considerable difficulties during the reintegration phase other authors have identified long-term positive outcomes associated with the experience. For example, Palinkas (Reference Palinkas1986) found that 15 years post-return navy personnel who had wintered in Antarctica reported significantly fewer hospitalisations than a control group and no adverse long-term consequences associated with their Antarctic employment experience were recorded. Research investigating this phase of Antarctic employment in conjunction with preceding phases of the employment experience is thus further warranted to gain an understanding of the processes leading to positive reintegration experiences, which may then contribute to the development of strategies to maximize such outcomes.

Comprehensive assessments of Antarctic employment

Knowledge of commonly experienced positive and negative events associated with Antarctic employment enables integration of this information into training programmes. In doing so, it promotes a sense of predictability and control over the situation – factors which have been associated with positive coping and adjustment strategies (e.g. Brown et al. Reference Brown, Mulhern and Joseph2002). These factors have also been implicated in resilience and growth outcomes (Schieman & Plickert Reference Schieman and Plickert2008).

It is not sufficient to look at each of these phases in isolation. In order to develop a comprehensive understanding of the interactive nature of Antarctic employment experiences research strategies need to include repeated-measures assessments of affect and performance throughout the four periods. This should allow the identification of phases at which proactive prevention as well as intervention strategies should be implemented to maximize expeditioner health and performance throughout their Antarctic employment experience. McCormick et al. (Reference McCormick, Taylor, Rivolier and Cazes1985) adopted a similar approach when investigating health and performance of participants in the International Biomedical Expedition to the Antarctic. With the primary aim of preparing participants for the expedition they took measurements prior to departure for Antarctica, during the expedition, and upon return. Results demonstrated that although there were no significant differences between pre-departure, absence, and reunion measures, there were affective fluctuations during the expedition which were attributed to social isolation from family and friends, and conditions of the traverse. These findings indicate that expeditioners are capable of negotiating changing and challenging conditions effectively although the processes by which this occurs remains unknown.

Thus the overview of anticipated experiences within each phase as well as the overall Antarctic employment experience indicates that there is interdependence between individual, organizational, and interpersonal factors that influence outcomes requiring a further expansion of existing research agendas.

Individual, interpersonal, and organizational influences

Consideration of the interdependence between individual, interpersonal, and organizational factors influencing the Antarctic experience need to be incorporated within research paradigms. At present the primary focus has remained on the individual expeditioner, and to a lesser extent organizational practices (e.g. Sarris & Kirby Reference Sarris and Kirby2007). However the concurrent experience of family and friends, and the influence this has on the expeditioner experience, has been largely overlooked. Only two published studies directly examine the partner experience of Antarctic employment. In their study Taylor & McCormick (Reference Taylor and McCormick1987) identified that partners were supportive of the expeditioner’s employment, confident that they could cope during the expeditioner’s absence, and were less anxious than the expeditioners regarding potential injury during the traverse. Although an important insight into the impacts of Antarctic employment on intimate relationship dynamics, this research was limited to only 12 participants over a 72-day period and may not be a true reflection of longer-term absence experiences. In contrast Norris et al. (Reference Norris, Paton and Ayton2008) focused on the absence period and found that partners consistently reported significantly higher levels of distress when compared to expeditioners throughout Antarctic absences. Furthermore, they identified that a lack of shared understanding engendered by differences in the nature of experiences reported by expeditioners and partners may negatively influence the reunion and reintegration period. Ongoing research being conducted by these same authors investigating the concurrent experiences of expeditioners and partners also suggests that knowledge of a partner’s difficulties during the absence period can detrimentally influence expeditioner well-being and performance.

The need to understand and accommodate partner experiences within organizational frameworks in which vocational separations occur is emphasized by research identifying that family concerns (including partner coping resources, and support for the employment assignment) can influence the performance of the absent employee. Specifically, it has been demonstrated that partners who have fewer difficulties negotiating challenges are better able to provide emotional and psychological support (Andreason Reference Andreason2007) thereby enhancing the adjustment and performance of the absent individual. In contrast, partners who experience difficulty adjusting to such conditions can detrimentally influence the employed individual’s ability to adjust to the new working conditions as well as their ongoing job performance (Andreason Reference Andreason2007).

Thus, in order to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the processes influencing expeditioner health and well-being it is important to examine not only the similarities and differences between expeditioner and partner experiences, but also the interrelationships between them, as well as how organizational practices influence these. Antarctic research could follow a similar path to that of organizational psychology looking at the interrelationships between individual, work, and the work-family interface.

The work-family interface

The work-family interface broadly refers to the interdependence between work and non-work roles. Interference between work and family/interpersonal domains has been associated with a number of negative outcomes including decreased productivity, absenteeism, and poor morale (e.g. Bartone et al. Reference Bartone, Adler and Vaitkus1998) as well as other physiological, cognitive, social, emotional, and performance problems (e.g. Klein Reference Klein1996) and employee retention difficulties (Hammer et al. Reference Hammer, Bauer and Grandey2003). Additionally, negative outcomes are also experienced within the family including family distress (Frone et al. Reference Frone, Russell and Cooper1992), decreased well being of family members (Burke et al. Reference Burke, Weir and Duwors1980), increased marital tension (Brett et al. Reference Brett, Stroh and Reilly1992) and decreased family satisfaction (Kopelman et al. Reference Kopelman, Greenhaus and Connolly1983).

Whilst the majority of this research has emphasized negative outcomes from interference between work and family/interpersonal roles there is increasing evidence to indicate that positive effects can result (Stevens et al. Reference Stevens, Minnotte, Mannon and Kiger2007). In fact, some researchers have identified that positive experiences associated with interactions between work and family/interpersonal roles often outweigh the negative (Bernas & Major Reference Bernas and Major2000) - not unlike the results investigating the concurrent experience of positive and negative emotions throughout the Antarctic absence period (Wood et al. Reference Wood, Hysong and Lugg2000). Specific positive outcomes associated with interference between work and family/interpersonal roles include increased role flexibility (Hughes et al. Reference Hughes, Galinksy and Morris1992), positive psychological spillover (Piotrkowski Reference Piotrkowski1979, Larson & Almeida Reference Larson and Almeida1999), enhanced self-esteem and self-efficacy (Grimm-Thomas & Perry-Jenkins Reference Grimm-Thomas and Perry-Jenkins1994, Barnett Reference Barnett1999), and increased perceptions of social support (Carlson & Perrewe Reference Carlson and Perrewe1999). The similarity between these outcomes and the salutogenic effects engendered by Antarctic employment suggests that by incorporating individual, interpersonal and organizational factors within research strategies the processes of adjustment and adaptation within this population may be better understood.

Interference between work and family roles have significant implications for Antarctic employers. One concerns the need to promote employee well-being, safety, and effective working practices. A second reflects the fact that experienced expeditioners represent an important resource for the organisation. However, present estimates indicate that only 45% of expeditioners return for subsequent Australian Antarctic seasonal employment (http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=6236 - accessed 28 June 2009). By addressing various sources of interference between work and non-work roles within Antarctic populations, it may be possible to enhance the employment experience for expeditioners and partners alike, thereby potentially increasing retention rates. Furthermore, continued emphasis on positive leadership practices and supportive collegial environments as currently advocated by Antarctic programmes can further enhance positive spillover between work and non-work roles as reported by Bowen (Reference Bowen1998) in his study of military populations.