Large historic overviews covering long time spans are a daunting task to undertake. Nonetheless, they are important as they look at events in a broader context and are able to include them in broader discussions that are often of relevance today. Maurits Berger’s book is one such case and covers thirteen centuries of the complex history of Islam in Europe. Needless to say, the topic is up-to-date given the current political situation around the Mediterranean and beyond. As the author states in the foreword (11), his book grew out of teaching an undergraduate class. It does offer some new insights but it is not a scholarly book. Rather, it is aimed at policy-makers. This is important to keep in mind when reading it.
A history as complex as this one needs to be well structured given the book’s short length. In the introduction, the author lays out the manifold problematics and stresses the topic’s links to today (or, rather, to 2014 when the book first appeared). It also places the subject of the book in the context of current historiography while, at the same time, the author distances himself from extreme views. He explicitly locates his viewpoint, or “camera” (18), on the European continent, from where he looks out to the Islamic world. He is explicitly Eurocentric in his approach, which he stresses by repeatedly referring to “us” Europeans in the book (17). The author defines his terminology in the introduction. He defines “Europe” by geographic means—the waterways in North, South, East (rivers) and West—rather than defined by a unity of Christian values, which (according to the author) change during each epoch (18-19). The definition of “Islam” is—he argues—as problematic as the one of “Europe” (19-22). This reviewer would argue that such a definition is actually more problematic because it places a mainly geographic concept in parallel with a generally cultural and religious concept. Despite admitting complexities, the author conceptualises “Islam” in a very simplified way: “[I]ts adherents, the Muslims; Islam as a culture and civilisation; Islam as a religion; and Islam as an image” (19). The author choses this broad interpretation even though, throughout the book, when talking about Islam he mostly refers to a “near” Islam largely bordering the Mediterranean coasts and its hinterland. The author neither mentions the Shia-Sunni divide (very relevant today still) nor the lack of hierarchical structure within Sunni Islam (there is no pope in Rome whose rulings are dogmatic), both points are central. This simplified definition of “Islam” unfortunately leads to problematic generalisations all through the book. Partially explained by the book coming out of an undergraduate course and aimed toward policy makers. However, a more nuanced definition would have been essential to understand historic complexities.
In addition to a chronological narrative, the author places a grid system over the five chapters to better structure them, which renders the book very good to navigate through (22-31). In each chapter, he first sets the stage by summarising historical events, he then writes about “physical Islam” (i.e., the actual presence of Muslims in Europe and focussing on the topics of armed conflict, trade and diplomacy, government and rule, coexistence and persecution). Each chapter ends with a discussion of “virtual Islam” meaning non-tangible influences of Islam on Europe (e.g. culture, knowledge and the image of Islam in Europe). While the sections concerning physical Islam represent a rather objective approach on dates and events, the sections of virtual Islam represent a more malleable approach focusing more vaguely about ideas and messages.
The sections on “physical” Islam are useful for didactic means and provide a general overview illustrating a multifaceted history, including lesser known encounters in Eastern Europe. Given the space constraints it remains superficial and there are, of course, different points to criticize. Just to pick but one example: the idea that the Ottomans were not as interested in “Europe” as vice versa (143). One often reads this but the matter is more complex. The impression arises mainly due to the fact that printing press information circulated more widely in “Europe”, or shall we call it “misinformation” because much of it was plain propaganda. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the Ottoman court in Istanbul was an extremely attractive goal for European renegades, often of high rank. Among them the Genoese, Cigalazade Yusuf Sinan Pasha (1545-1605) was the most prominent example but there were many more. The Ottoman court translators, in charge of many diplomatic missions to the Habsburg court, were often renegades from Poland, Styria, Croatia and other places who, after conversion, made impressive careers at the Ottoman court as sources of valuable information. Therefore, certain circles within the Ottoman Empire were better informed about the goings on in “Europe” than vice versa. However, this information did not drip down to the people in the way it did in “Europe”.
An additional relevant point is the authors’ evaluation of the question of tolerance and religious war, a concept still abused today. He discusses the different forms of relative religious tolerance of rulers, which was mostly based on segregation, and its changing nature and rightly opts for a nuanced view when using this term. For centuries armed conflicts between “Islam” and “Europe” were justified as religious war. By comparing important conflicts and the propaganda surrounding them (e.g., the Battle of Poitiers, the Reconquista, the Crusades and the Siege of Vienna), the author rightly dismisses the concept of holy war on both sides as nothing more than an “additional driving force that vindicated the war” (240). The real reasons, so the author, were generally socio-economic in nature and only from the fifteenth to the twentieth century formation of nation states in Europe. The eminent role that propaganda took in (ab)using religious content in this question should be stressed much more. This seems to be an elephant in the room about which too little is written. In addition, to have the phenomenon of the European nation-state start developing in the fifteenth century is chronologically early and undercuts the author’s argument.
Issues surrounding propaganda lead to the second distributing factor running though this book: “Virtual Islam”. The author demonstrates the changing views of “Europe” on “Islam” oscillating between admiration and fear, tolerance and rejection. The image of “Islam” in “Europe” is one that, from very early on, was moulded by those in power and adapted to their political interests. This still holds true today, especially with the emergence of populist politics in Europe—a fact not mentioned explicitly enough by the author. The historical view of “Islam” is informed by what survives, which in Europe is (to a large extant) political propaganda that served a purpose and manipulated a largely uninformed people. One could say similar things about the question of the alleged cultural values or identities of “Islam” and “Europe” that are still central to political jargon today but are mostly politically abused.
As a legal scholar, Berger explores the ambivalent situation of Muslims living in Europe today by explaining that, in order to practise their religion freely, Muslims (and he mainly speaks of the very religious groups of people albeit admitting to a more complex situation) need the fundamental human rights granted by EU countries. However, he rightly states that those holding very traditional and fundamental views undermine this need by seeking to limit the freedom of expression once it comes to religious satire.
Within the book, quite reasonably written passages alternate with passages of problematic generalisations. What becomes clear and should be stressed more explicitly is the important point that, when there is less abusive propaganda (both religious as well as secular) and less discussion of alleged differences regarding identities and values (by all sides), people of different religions coexisted better. That is what policy-makers today, some of whom the author of this book intends to tutor and who will probably read it, should keep in mind. Brevity has its good sides but, in this case, some thirty more pages with additionally nuanced explanations would have made this book a more serious contribution to a complex topic. It needs to be read with much caution.
