Anglo-Saxon England, from the eighth to the eleventh centuries, had a thriving ecclesiastical culture, as evidenced by the number of surviving documents containing homilies, hagiography, prayers, and religious poetry, as well as canon laws, penitentials, liturgical and pastoral works. It was indeed an “Age of Faith.” But what did Christianity mean to ordinary people in their day-to-day lives? What was their understanding of Christian doctrine? How did they practice their beliefs? And, “perhaps most importantly,” Helen Foxhall Forbes asks, “what did it mean to be a Christian (or to be a good Christian) in the changing social contexts of Anglo-Saxon England?” (1).

In this impressive study, Foxhall Forbes explores these questions through an analysis of theological texts (not all of which represent the official doctrines of the church, such as they were) alongside charters, wills, and laws in order to uncover the theological ideas which affected society's values regarding person, property, justice and mercy. Foxhall Forbes also spreads her net more widely, to include examinations of place-names, archaeology, and art; the evidence provided by topography and material culture affords further insight into the extent to which Christian ideas, beliefs and values permeated the lives of the Anglo-Saxons and how they practiced their religion.

Foxhall Forbes admits that the evidence is fragmented; no lay person from this period left behind any personal statement of belief or practice. Nevertheless, by drawing together the fragments from a variety of sources, she demonstrates how they contribute to sketching out the theological and cultural landscape of Anglo-Saxon England. In chapter 1, “I Believe in One God,” she lays out the problems with dealing with the available evidence, problems compounded by the fact that most of the written evidence was produced by the very people who were involved in Christian learning and theological debate. The archaeological evidence, from burial sites in churchyards, and evidence of images in churches and manuscripts were likewise influenced. Foxhall Forbes questions past models of viewing faith in Anglo-Saxon, especially that of pagan and Christian syncretism, and finds them wanting. Instead, she turns her attention to the education of priests and of the laity in the fundamentals of Christianity. If religious paintings in churches were a means of teaching the laity, how were they interpreted by the parish priests? And how often did people actually attend church to receive such instruction? Foxhall Forbes offers a well-grounded argument that knowledge of Christian doctrine and dogma was not consistent in either clergy or laity, and that belief in magic and magical creatures (like elves and monsters) is not evidence of survivals of paganism.

In chapter 2, “Creator of All Things, Visible and Invisible,” Foxhall Forbes takes up the issue of belief in spirits, the protection of angels and the assaults by demons, as well as the understanding of baptism, sickness, and the state of the soul at death in this context. Using such texts as saints’ lives and the rites for baptism, for the sick and the dying, she demonstrates how such beliefs, in their various ways (such as the treatment of disease or the supernatural associations of certain places), affected the way in which people viewed the world and lived their lives. Chapter 3, “And He Will Come to Judge the Living and the Dead,” explores the effect of theological ideas on legal matters, both ecclesiastical and secular, in assessing crimes and punishment, and rendering judgment on earth. Foxhall Forbes takes a close look at the issue of capital punishment and the debates over whether or not the clergy should be involved; the matter of ordeals and their use (and usefulness) in determining guilt; and the swearing and breaking of oaths. Chapter 4, “The Communion of Saints and the Forgiveness of Sins,” turns to beliefs in the state of the soul, both before and after death. Foxhall Forbes examines the idea of, and belief in, purgatory; the provision for prayers and commemorations for the dead; almsgiving for the sake of one's soul; and donations to churches and religious houses. The records of donations to religious communities and the number of names preserved in memorial books of the dead indicate how much laypeople were concerned for the fate of their souls and those of their family. Men made donations in their own names and those of their wives; women did the same for themselves and their husbands. Foxhall Forbes also demonstrates how important these religious communities were to the laity for maintaining the memory of the dead and how their spiritual services were valued in material ways.

In chapter 5, “The Resurrection of the Body and the Life Everlasting,” Foxhall Forbes turns to burial rites and burial customs, examining the very concept of a Christian burial and what that could mean in this period. Here, Foxhall Forbes looks closely at the archaeological evidence from burial grounds, such as Nazeing in Essex. The placement of the bodies, the care with which they were interred reveal the concern for the treatment of remains, which in turn raises both social and theological issues. In settlements remote from a church or religious community, how were the dead treated? Foxhall Forbes discusses the development of consecrated burial grounds, requests for burials in such places, the exclusion of certain people (like criminals), and the evidence of social status even amongst the dead. One wishes, especially in this last chapter, that the book contained more illustrations, especially of archaeological sites (admittedly, an expensive desideratum). There are, however, useful tables of her manuscript sources and an extensive bibliography.

The breadth and depth of learning in this book is extraordinary. Helen Foxhall Forbes is meticulous with her sources and careful with her argument; she makes no assertions or speculations without a solid footing. Her use of both written and material evidence provides a new model for viewing how Christian ideas and beliefs affected the lives of ordinary people in Anglo-Saxon England. This is essential reading for anyone dealing with the history of the church and faith in this Age of Faith.