Whether or not certain demographic groups within society have sufficient access to information and communication technology (ICT) has become a major subject of debate. So-called digital divides have been examined in regard to many demographic categories, such as race, gender, socioeconomic status, and even the level of urbanization. Most empirical efforts to examine issues of technological inequities within the United States have been primarily descriptive in nature and theoretically limited in scope. Virtual Inequality: Beyond the Digital Divide adds a valuable contribution to the debate by examining not only who has access to ICT but also to what extent they have sufficient skills to truly make use of such technologies and the information that they potentially provide.

The work is grounded in the belief that disparities in the ability to use ICT may serve to accentuate preexisting political and economic inequities. The first chapter is devoted to examining previous literature regarding digital divides and discussing various government and nonprofit initiatives that have attempted to provide access to various groups of citizens. This chapter also lays out the research methodology that the authors employ for their study, a national telephone survey conducted during the summer of 2001. This substantial empirical effort employed both a sample from the general population and a sample of low-income respondents, the latter in sufficient numbers in order to examine the proposed inequalities in regard to the public's access to, and use of, ICT. The introductory chapter is then followed by subsequent chapters that examine four different divides: the access divide, the skills divide, the economic opportunity divide, and the democratic divide.

As the authors examine each of these divides, they employ various regression models to see if demographic variables, such as age, education, race, political affiliation, and economic status, affect the respective dependent variables employed to measure the particular divide. While the use of such techniques is not new in studies of ICT, political science, or public policy, much of the research to date examining the digital divide has been purely descriptive in nature. Therefore, the ability to statistically control for the possible influence of multiple predictors when examining one divide is a step forward in examining possible social inequities in the public's ability to use ICT. For example, in their examination of the access divide, the authors find that respondents with increased age, lower economic status, and lower levels of education are less likely to have a computer at home, an e-mail account, or Internet access. Furthermore, a respondent's racial group was also found to influence access to ICT, with African Americans and Latinos both less likely to have access to ICT than whites or Asians. Republicans were more likely to have an e-mail address and home computers than Independents, while Democrats were less likely than Independents to have access to the Internet. While these specific results are not necessarily surprising, given the findings from previous research on which demographic groups have access to ICT, the analysis presented in this text is a step beyond most previous efforts. The only potential deficit is a lack of attention to the possibility of endogenous relationships among the four digital divides themselves. The authors allude to this possibility in discussing a link between access and skills (p. 123), but they do not seem to explore the possibility empirically.

The authors' most important contribution is in expanding the discussion of digital divides in order to examine factors that may influence a respondent's skill level in using ICT, as well as respondents' attitudes toward various public access and learning preferences. This focus is reminiscent of the research conducted by scholars in information science that examines the computer self-efficacy of individuals within complex organizations. Such research is grounded in the assumption that access to ICT is not enough. Rather, an individual must also possess the requisite skills to use ICT in order to fully realize its potential benefits. The analysis indicates that technical competency in using computers is influenced by a respondent's age, education level, economic status, race, and gender. With the exception of gender, the same variables also influenced a respondent's general level of information literacy. In addition to the discussion of technical competency and information literacy, the authors also present evidence regarding how respondents perceived public accessibility of computers, as well as what factors influence preferences in regards to learning to use new forms of ICT.

While there seems to be inequities regarding access and skill attainment, the authors present convincing evidence that many traditionally disadvantaged groups do perceive ICT to be an important factor in economic achievement. For instance, African Americans, women, younger adults, and the unemployed all considered the ability to use ICT a necessity in keeping up economically. Many groups, especially African American respondents, indicated a willingness to undertake skills training. The authors finally present evidence that there are differences in regard to using ICT as a means of participating in the democratic process. Not surprisingly, respondents who were younger, were better educated, and identified themselves as Democrats had more positive perceptions toward the use of ICT for political participation activities or dissemination of government information. The authors acknowledge that many of their findings regarding the use of ICT in political activities are the same factors that are often found to influence political activity overall.

The final chapter is devoted to discussing how inequities regarding ICT access and skills may be addressed though public policy. While several federally funded programs, such as the E-Rate program, attempt to assist in providing public access to ICT within schools, libraries, and community technology centers in low-income areas, such programs are not primarily concerned with skill development. The authors disagree with those who believe that increased diffusion of ICT within society will ultimately eliminate inequities regarding the use of ICT. They present a much more proactive stance concerning the role of government and believe that government programs should focus not only on increasing access but on assisting with skill development in using ICT. Several potential policy initiatives are suggested, including a focus on skills development at public access sites and experimentation with ICT vouchers to low-income participants. Furthermore, they recognize that disparities in regard to ICT are also tied to broader disparities within the U.S. education system.

Ultimately, reducing the digital divides may only be achieved by improving general educational opportunities for the public at large. While achieving such goals will become increasingly important, the possibility for major interventionist policies on the part of the federal or state governments may be limited in the near future due to economic and political realities. Regardless, Karen Mossberger, Caroline Tolbert, and Mary Stansbury present an interesting and important study that expands academic and policy discussions pertaining to digital divides.