Introduction
The term ‘rural poultry (RP) or family poultry (FP)’ in most developing countries is indicative of the traditional, low-input husbandry of domestic poultry (e.g. chicken, duck pigeon, quail or guinea fowl) that are typically maintained by the rural poor (somewhat similar to backyard chicken on a wider concept). Sonaiya (Reference SONAIYA2007) defined rural poultry as involving ‘any genetic stock, improved or unimproved that is raised extensively or semi-extensively in relatively small numbers’ (usually less than 100 at a time). The indigenous chickens are classified as dual purpose chickens, which produce low to moderate levels of both meat and egg (Pederson, Reference PEDERSON2002). Statistics in Africa reveal that in 2005, the total poultry population was estimated to be 1,356 million chickens, 16 million ducks, 12 million geese and guinea fowls and 9 million turkeys, producing 2,180,125 metric tons (MT) of hen eggs; 7,143 MT of other poultry eggs; 3,257,292 MT of chicken meat; 56,619 MT of turkey meat and guinea fowl meat and 66,252 MT of turkey meat (FAO, Statistics). More than 80% of the total poultry population are kept in local communities, (Guèye, Reference GUÈYE2000) and contribute substantially to annual egg and meat production, especially in disadvantaged groups and less-favoured areas in Africa. Thus, Sheldon (Reference SHELDON2000) stated that research on small-scale poultry production system has to be a priority in the scientific poultry community in years to come. In Nigeria, RP form the bulk source of poultry meat and poultry by-products, especially in the rural areas (Sa'idu et al., 2008), with the greater part of the flock being dominated by chickens. In Tanzania, traditional small-scale poultry production is by far the largest poultry sub-sector and it supplies all poultry meat and eggs consumed in the rural areas (Boki, Reference BOKI2000). It accounts for about 95% of total poultry in the traditional poultry sector (Agriculture Sample Census, Reference AGRICULTURE SAMPLE CENSUS2003).
RP production system is characterised by low-input, low output system (Kitalyi, Reference KITALYI1996). The labour involved is not salaried, but drawn from the family with production geared essentially towards home consumption or savings (Canagarajah et al., Reference CANAGARAJAH, NWAFOR and THOMAS1997). The village poultry production system consists of free ranging during the day and housing at night. Housing is often rudimentary with shelters made of various scrap materials or split bamboo with palm thatch roof. Perches and nest boxes are not usually provided and all species are housed together. The major source of feed for the birds is that obtained from scavenging, sometimes supplemented with household waste and crop residues.
The numerous beliefs and vast knowledge regarding poultry production among various communities in Africa, is a clear indication that RP plays an important role in the economic wellbeing of rural dwellers in Africa, despite the rapid expansion of commercial poultry farming which is yet unable to satisfy the continent's needs. This paper examines the vital contributions (nutritional, economic, socio-cultural and religious importance of RP, income generating activity of RP and the involvement of women and youths), feeding practices, household ownership pattern, reproductive ability, diseases/constraints and marketing systems associated with RP production that had led to its continuous existence and popularity in Africa despite the fast growth of commercial poultry production.
Contributions of rural poultry
nutritional importance of RP
RP production is an important agricultural activity for most rural communities in Africa, providing scare animal protein in the form of meat and eggs (Awuni, Reference AWUNI2005). The high energy and nutrients in poultry meat in conjunction with the unique characteristic flavour has endeared most consumers to poultry consumption (FAO, Reference FAO1990). The white meat obtained from poultry carcass (RP inclusive), is always low in fat, with high caloric values and has low levels of cholesterol which makes it a healthy food for children and aged adults (Smith, Reference SMITH1982). An analysis of the nutrient composition of meat samples from RP showed that they were not significantly different from those of exotic poultry, except in pH value where the RP was higher (Egbeyale et al., Reference EGBEYALE, SOGUNLE and ALADESAE2010). This difference could be as a result of variations in management system and breed (Cantreras-Castillo et al., Reference CANTRERAS-CASTILLO, PINTO, SOUZA, BERAQUET, AGUIAR, CIPOLLI, MENDELS and ORTEGA2007) or variations in pre-slaughter handling, sex and breed (Komiyama et al., 2008). Thus RP is widely accepted by all cultures since it is a source of meat for human consumption (Ray, Reference RAY1994).
economic, socio-cultural and religious importance of RP
RP production plays a significant role in the socio-economic development in Africa. More than 85% of the rural families in sub-Saharan Africa keep one and/or other species of poultry, Guèye (Reference GUÈYE1998). In some African countries, the village chicken population to human population ratio is about 1:5 (Guèye, Reference GUÈYE2007). Akinola and Elenwo (Reference AKINOLA and ELENWO2008) stated some benefits derivable from poultry eggs and meat production to include:
• Animal-derived food needed for physical and intellectual development of humans as well as for enhancement of human immunity against diseases.
• Provision of high quality protein which is cheap, thus, contributing significantly to the overall wellbeing of family members.
• Serving as source of raw material for use by manufacturing industries.
• Serving as a cheap source of input for agro-allied industries engaged in the production of food, drinks, confectionaries, vaccines etc.
• Providing employment opportunities for rural women and youths
• Creating opportunity for research in chicken biology which promotes basic sciences, with potential impact in other areas, including human health, food production and environmental conservation thus offering new insights into avian biology
Poultry keeping also has symbolic importance within the context of social and cultural activities (for example, special banquets for distinguished guests, gifts, cockerels as alarm clocks for rural dwellers). In Burkina Faso, RP has been used to promote social development. The 10 year Burkina Faso ‘Projet pour le Développment de l'Aviculture Villageoise’ (PDAV) concentrated on the training and placement of ‘Vulgarisateurs Villageois Volontaires’ (VVV) in 4,378 villages out of 7,500 in the country and had a total of 5,646,125 beneficiaries, (Ouandaogo, Reference OUANDAOGO1990; Sonaiya, Reference SONAIYA1992).
In Nigeria, Sonaiya (Reference SONAIYA2005) reported that the Family Poultry Research Project (FPRP) has developed a Smallholder Family Poultry (SFP) model for poverty alleviation and food security for farm families with emphasis on a combination of improvements in vaccination, feeding, housing, breeding and farmers’ training and input supplies. The project targeted poor rural women as the immediate beneficiaries and was intended to make use of a hybrid developed by the National Animal Production Research Institute, the Shika Brown Layer (SBL) to improve the local chickens. The contributory role of RP in poverty alleviation is therefore very important. In Ethiopia, there is a strong preference for eggs and meat from RP over the exotic birds (Gebra, Reference GEBRA1997). Thus, in some communities, the livestock and particularly the RP has been found to be extremely important in breaking the cycle of poverty, malnutrition and disease. Ikani et al. (Reference IKANI, MUSA, ABDULLAHI and JEGEDE2008) concluded that RP keeping could contribute positively to enhanced household nutritional status and poverty alleviation.
In most African countries, chicken cockerels are the most popular sacrificial animals during cultural and religious activities (Guèye, Reference GUÈYE2007). For instance, in northern Ghana, a red cockerel is sacrificed to the ancestors when the person is requesting a good harvest or for rain (Van Veluw, Reference VAN VELUW1987). A white cockerel is used when community members wish to express gratitude; a black cockerel is sacrificed to ask for protection from problems such as diseases, war or quarrels; a white cockerel is given by one family to another when a marriage agreement is made (Guèye, Reference GUÈYE2007). Akinola and George (Reference AKINOLA and GEORGE2011) found that a white local cockerel and a native egg are used for sacrifice to prevent rain from falling whenever there is a big function (an occasion) in some local government areas in Rivers State, Nigeria. Cockerels are used as offerings to deities, thus, birds having feather colour(s) and sex that are much sought after are relatively costly (Guèye, Reference GUÈYE2007).
Local chickens and their products have made significant contributions to traditional human medicine in Africa. Sonaiya et al. (Reference SONAIYA, BRANCKAERT and GUÈYE1999) reported that in South-West Nigeria, chicken entrails are traditionally used to increase libido in old men. In some communities in Khana, local government of Rivers State, South Nigeria, Akinola and George (Reference AKINOLA and GEORGE2011) reported that soothsayers and traditional doctors prescribe a sacrifice of native eggs and fowl to initiate fertility in women and to cure a sick person respectively. Report from the Mamprusi society in northern Ghana showed that soothsayers and traditional doctors prescribe a sacrifice of poultry to cure a sick person or to ask for a safe journey (Van Veluw, Reference VAN VELUW1987). It is believed that poultry has mystical functions. For example, village chicken farmers in Senegal believe that bad spirits can be diverted into chickens. As a result of this, birds which are, in fact, affected by Newcastle disease, showing neurological symptoms, which manifest as strange behaviour is believed to be a diverted bad spirit which would otherwise have affected the family (Guèye, Reference GUÈYE2007).
RP production as an income generating activity
Guèye (Reference GUÈYE2002) stated that small-scale RP production systems are financially beneficial because even if the productivity of birds is low, some poultry meat and eggs constitute a net profit for poultry keepers. In Nigeria, the demand for chicken, with respect to both eggs and meat, by consumers, was categorised as a high preference group (Essien et al., Reference ESSIEN, ALONGE, ETOP, UMOH and ADINYA2008). Thus, the sales of poultry meat and eggs can generate significant disposable income, especially for those living in rural areas, without any access to land or other important resources such as cattle and/or small ruminants. In the same vein, Das et al. (Reference DAS, CHOWDHURY, KHATU, NISHITORI, ISOBE and YOSHIMURA2008) considered poultry as a secondary business in Bangladesh, generally maintained by rural women and children that generate cash revenue but basically supply adequate eggs and meat for their own family's diet. Akinola and George (Reference AKINOLA and GEORGE2009) stated that 64 farmers sampled in eight communities in the Khana local government area (LGA) of Rivers State, South Nigeria, realised a net profit which varied between N350 (US$2.60) and N550 (US$4.20). In Bauchi State, Nigeria, Kushi et al. (Reference KUSHI, ADEGBOLA and UMEH1998) reported that due to keeping poultry (chicken, ducks and turkeys), each of the 94 surveyed rural women earned an average income equivalent to US$3.33 in a month, with an annual Gross National Product per person in Nigeria amounting to US$280 in 1994. From South-West Nigeria, Adenegan and Olayide (Reference ADENEGAN and OLAYIDE2005) recorded a profit margin of N10 (US$0.08) and N30 (US$0.25) per tray of egg for wholesalers and retailers of eggs respectively. From Central Tanzania, Chitukuro and Foster (Reference CHITUKURO and FOSTER1997) revealed that an average family flock of five adult chickens (two males and three females) enables women in that country to have an additional income equivalent to US$38.00 in one year representing 9.5% of their average annual income.
Studies from the African continent reveal that benefits gained by poultry keepers from the subsistence poultry sector do not go exclusively to them, especially if they are women. They are mostly distributed directly or indirectly to all family members, thus contributing to the overall wellbeing of household members. Akinola and George (Reference AKINOLA and GEORGE2009; Reference AKINOLA and GEORGE2011) showed that various percentages of the profit realised from RP keeping by farmers in the Rivers State, Nigeria were used for purchasing domestic goods (soap, tea, sugar and other condiments), acquisition of clothes and shoes for family members and for re-investment into the business. This report was similar to that of Mopate and Lony (Reference MOPATE and LONY1998), who surveyed 57 chicken keepers located in ten villages in rural N'Djamena of Chad and showed that 61 chickens generated an income equivalent to US$150.00, out of which 40% was used for obtaining domestic goods, 30% for purchase of clothes and shoes for household members, 20% for business and 10% for purchasing other chickens.
women and youth involvement in RP management
Surveys carried out in some African countries revealed that women are more involved in activities relating to poultry farming (Babatunde, Reference BABATUNDE1991; Alders, Reference ALDERS1996; Kitalyi, Reference KITALYI1998; Guèye, Reference GUÈYE2000; Reference GUÈYE2005; Okeke et al., Reference OKEKE, USMAN, SOBAYO, AKINOLA and ODOZIE2007; Akinola and George, Reference AKINOLA and GEORGE2009). The women are sometimes assisted by children. Thus, women and children provide the labour for RP (Obi and Sonaiya, Reference OBI and SONAIYA1995; Sonaiya et al., Reference SONAIYA, BRANCKAERT and GUÈYE1999) although they may be expected to consult men before making decisions about the birds. All household members tend to participate in poultry management. For example, men and children (boys) assist the women in marketing live chickens, especially when the place of sales is far from the home. They are responsible to a large extent for the construction of shelters for the birds to use at night (Guèye, Reference GUÈYE2007). An anonymous (Reference ANONYMOUS1996) report from Mozambique shows that while women collect the building materials and build the floor and walls, the men and young boys construct the roof.
Management and feeding systems
RP production systems in Africa is solely based on subsistence production where most of the birds are kept as scavenger under free-range system making the keeping of poultry by rural dwellers quite easy and cheap. There are usually little or no inputs such as feeding, health care and housing. Housing is often rudimentary with shelter made of various scrap materials or split bamboo with a palm thatch roof. Perches and nest boxes are not usually provided and all species are housed together. At night, they sometimes roost in kitchens or in tree branches (Kitalyi, Reference KITALYI1998) or are kept in shelters and housed together with the family members for security reasons (Goromela et al., Reference GOROMELA, KOMWIHANGILO and MWANGA1999).
Chicks are usually hatched by means of natural incubation with broody hens sitting on clutches of eggs. The hatched chicks are fed, protected from enemies and raised by hens until they are naturally weaned and can look after themselves (Sarkar and Bell, Reference SARKAR and BELL2006). Farmers thus rely on broody hens to perform brooding and taking care of chicks, which results in long reproductive cycles. Newly hatched chicks stay with their mother hens when scavenging, thus exposing them to predators, harsh environmental conditions (cold, rain or hot weather) and diseases. This leads to high mortality rate in early life, ranging between 40 to 80% at age of six to eight weeks (Mwaluasanya et al., 2001). Chicks compete for food with aggressive older chickens, leading to malnutrition or starvation, which may eventually lead to impaired growth, a drop in performance or death.
Weaned birds are left to search for their own food around the homestead and surrounding crop fields in the day. They usually obtain their diets from scavengeable feed resource base, including kitchen waste, leaves, flowers, sand and grit, insect and worms, inert materials, oil seeds and cakes, trees, fruit seeds, cereal bran, grains and other materials (Goromela et al., Reference GOROMELA, KWAKKEL, VERSTEGEN, KATULE and SENDALO2009). There had been reports that scavengeable feedstuffs consumed by native chicken vary from 9 - 27g/bird/day (Huque et al., Reference HUQUE, UKIL, HOSSAIN and HAQUE1992; Sonaiya et al., Reference SONAIYA, OLUKOSI, OBI and K.M.2002), which is insufficient to fulfil their nutritional requirements. This is attributed to seasonal fluctuations in the supply of these materials, which varies with cropping season thereby limiting the supply of nutrients to a level below the requirement for optimal production. Sonaiya (Reference SONAIYA2000) stated that during the grain harvest, birds usually can scavenge enough feed. During the rainy season, they get abundant animal protein by picking up worms, snails and insects although they may easily develop vitamin and mineral deficiencies in the dry periods. Goromela et al. (Reference GOROMELA, KWAKKEL, VERSTEGEN and KATULE2006) reported that scavengeable feed resources are generally low in crude protein (8-10%); energy (10-12 MJ AME/kg); minerals, particularly calcium (0.5-1.2%) and phosphorus (0.5-0.7%) thus nutrient deficiencies are common features in scavenging birds and may be one of the main contributing factors causing low productivity.
Household flock size and productive ability
The actual number of birds owned, the size of the family which own the birds and the actual species composition varies with region in which the household is located, their wealth status and ethnic group. Reports from Nigeria, show a mean flock size of 16 birds (Sonaiya, Reference SONAIYA2005), varying from 1-40 birds (Akinola and George, Reference AKINOLA and GEORGE2008), 21-40 birds (Akinola and George, Reference AKINOLA and GEORGE2009) and less than 200 birds (Yakubu and Yakubu, Reference YAKUBU and YAKUBU2009). Chitukuro and Foster (Reference CHITUKURO and FOSTER1997) revealed that the average household flock size in Tanzania is five adult chickens, most times two males and three females. Generally African household flock size had been reported to range from three to 97 (Sonaiya et al., Reference SONAIYA, BRANCKAERT and GUÈYE1999) and 1 to 95 (Guèye, Reference GUÈYE2003).
Hens mature in 24 weeks and produce three clutches of ten eggs each, out of which 86% are hatched with only 33% of hatched eggs surviving (Sonaiya, Reference SONAIYA2005). According to Goromela et al. (Reference GOROMELA, KWAKKEL, VERSTEGEN, KATULE and SENDALO2009), live body weight of local hens at 24 weeks ranges between 1.5 and 1.7 kg while the average carcass weight varies between 0.6 and 1.2 kg with annual egg production of between 40 to 60 eggs. The mean number of eggs per clutch ranges from 14.4 to 16.4 with a survival rate of 84% up to 12 weeks of age. They further reported that early weaning of chicks increased the number of clutches from two clutches with 29 eggs when chicks are weaned at 12 weeks to three clutches with 42 eggs and four clutches with 56 eggs when chicks are weaned at 8 weeks and 4 weeks respectively.
Diseases of RP
The common diseases of local chickens are Newcastle disease, fowl pox, gumboro disease, helminthosis and ectoparasitism (Sai'du et al., Reference SAI'DU, ABDU, UMOOH and ABDULLAHI1994; Abdu et al., Reference ABDU, SA'IDU and GEORGE2000) but the major one is Newcastle disease. Other diseases that affect local chickens are fowl typhoid and cholera. To enhance the performance of RP, there must be an effective disease control programme. Obi (Reference OBI1996) stated that vaccination, feed supplementation and especially vaccination plus supplementation increased flock size, reduced mortality and increased the number of chicks produced per hen per year. The recent outbreak of the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in Africa is of major concern to RP production. Since it was first noticed in the African continent in Northern Nigeria on 16th January, 2006, the disease had so far been reported in Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt, Ghana, Niger, Sudan and Togo (FAOAIDE News, Reference FAOAIDE News2007). Although the situation is under control, there is the need to be very cautious as millions of Africans rely on products from RP.
Marketing systems
More than 90% (Latif, Reference LATIF2001; Akinola and George, Reference AKINOLA and GEORGE2011) of poultry birds and eggs are sold directly or indirectly to consumers at farm gates or village markets. Middlemen or assemblers buy the remaining products and either sell them to wholesalers or transport the accumulated products to retail markets in urban or semi-urban areas, making more profit than the smallholder poultry farmers (Kitalyi, Reference KITALYI1998; Mlozi et al., Reference MLOZI, KAKENGI, MINGA, MTAMBO and OLSEN2003; Gondwe et al., Reference GONDWE, WOLLNY and KAUMBATA2005; Akinola and George, Reference AKINOLA and GEORGE2011). It is necessary that meat and eggs produced on the farm should reach consumers through good marketing channels, however, unfortunately, RP products (live birds and eggs) in Africa do not get to the market in an organised way. There are still problems in assembling, storage, transportation, distribution and marketing, so some losses still occur and sometimes, the quality of products deteriorate.
Conclusions
There is no doubt that RP production should be encouraged as it is a valuable asset to local populations in developing countries, especially Africa. Its numerous contributions to rural livelihood and the overall well-being, especially in disadvantaged groups and less favoured areas in Africa cannot be overlooked. RP production should be backed by proper inputs in terms of management, feeding, disease control, marketing until meat and egg-type strains with native genetics are developed to meet the requirement for meat and eggs in the continent. Any plans for poverty alleviation or reduction through RP rearing must be prepared, implemented and monitored to ensure increased and sustainable RP production in Africa.
