The state of Gajaaga (Senegal, 11^th–19^th C) is an absolutely fascinating yet understudied polity, which had not been the subject of a thorough study since Abdulaye Bathily’s Les Portes de l’Or in 1989. Traoré’s book builds and expands on Bathily’s work, with a specific focus on the 17^th–19^th century period and the themes of ethnicity and resistance. The book’s main subject is the reaction of Gajaaga rulers to the dangers posed by the slave trade and European imperialism, expressed first through the emergence of new forms of political organisation (the ‘ethnic state’), and second through various acts of resistance (tariffs, assassinations, intelligence, alliances). Additionally, the book also reflects on the differences between West African domestic slavery and mercantile chattel slavery, as well as on the environmental damage caused by the Atlantic trade. The research is based on extensive work in French archives, with some additional data from Arabic sources, and oral traditions collected by the author.

Traoré’s work on 17^th–19^th century Gajaaga is commendable and it contributes considerably to the understanding of this unique case study: a decentralised polity, located at the gateway to the African interior (and hence right in the middle of slave trade routes), but which actively rejected slave trading. Traoré’s systematic sifting through archival materials has uncovered a plethora of stories and incidents documenting acts of Gajaaga resistance in the face of imperialist encroachment by European powers. These are analysed with nuance, emphasizing that agency and subversion do not operate on an even playing field, but on a board heavily tilted by the forces of global capitalism. This allows him to make very effective contributions to important historical debates regarding the Atlantic slave trade, African agency, resistance and political organisation.

Unfortunately, in contrast with the author’s extensive knowledge of the 17^th–19^th century period, the book is guilty of significant misconception regarding earlier times. First, there is a constant blurring of events prior to the 17^th century under the label ‘precolonial West Africa’. This is the equivalent of calling mediaeval Saxony ‘pre-nazi central Europe’: technically correct but historically unhelpful. As part of this blurring, the demises of Ghana/Wagadu, Mali, and Songhay are often presented as a single event/era (e.g. pag. 81), when they were actually five centuries apart and took place in completely different circumstances. Similarly, no mention is made of Gajaaga’s first few centuries of existence following the fall of Ghana in the 11^th C, despite significant archaeological and historical evidence on the period. The repeated use of ‘Almoravid’ to describe 18^th-century groups is also rather baffling.

Furthermore, while the use of archival sources is accurate and well-referenced, this is not the case with other types of materials. For instance, the Tarikh al-Fattash – described in the book as a 16^th text by Kati – has been shown to be a combination of two texts from the 19^th and 17^th centuries, respectivelyFootnote ¹ , which is crucial to contextualise critically the information it contains. Similarly, oral tradition interviews conducted by the author are listed as one of the main sources used but they are never cited in the text. Most crucially, there has been important archaeological work on Gajaaga, Bundu and Bambuxu by scholars like Ibrahima Thiaw, Cameron Gokee and Ladji Dianifaba, covering both the period before and during the book’s main chronological focus. These studies provide invaluable information not featured in archival materials, hence it is difficult to understand why they were not consulted.

Finally, at a theoretical level, it would have been useful to have some elaboration on various issues, like how the ‘ethnic state’ (a complex polity defined by a single ethnic identity and fixed borders) differs from the standard nation-state, or what earlier ‘tribal’ phase the notion of 16^th century ‘retribalising’ refers to. Nonetheless, and despite these limitations, the book is a significant and welcome addition to the field. Through critical analysis of a vast array of French archival sources, Traoré convincingly documents Gajaaga’s 17^th–19^th-century rejection of slavery, and in doing so contributes to advancing our understanding of African agency during the Atlantic era.