More than a decade has passed since the publication of The Oxford Handbook of Construction Grammar (Hoffmann & Trousdale Reference Hoffmann and Trousdale2013) and the field has undergone substantial transformation in that time. The Cambridge Handbook of Construction Grammar (2025), edited by Mirjam Fried and Kiki Nikiforidou, arrives at a pivotal moment in the development of construction-based approaches to language. Over the years, Construction Grammar (henceforth CxG) has evolved from a relatively marginal framework to a major paradigm in linguistic theory. This transformation has gained particular momentum from an unexpected source: the success of large language models in acquiring linguistic knowledge through statistical learning. These models demonstrate that many aspects of language traditionally considered idiosyncratic can in fact be learned from distributional patterns in linguistic input, a finding that aligns remarkably well with CxG’s foundational claim that grammatical knowledge is usage-based rather than derived from innate universal principles. The convergence between computational modelling and constructionist theory has thus repositioned CxG from a challenger framework to a central player in contemporary linguistic debates. This handbook ambitiously attempts to showcase the consolidation of core insights, the diversification of constructionist research and the emerging directions for future inquiry.
As the editors point out in the ‘Introduction’ (p. 5), the volume does not replace the previous handbook (Hoffmann & Trousdale Reference Hoffmann and Trousdale2013), but it offers a complementary perspective. While ten years ago it was still necessary to define why CxG was a useful and valid theoretical framework and what were the foundational tenets and branches inside CxG, it is now sufficiently robust to progress to the next phase: how theoretical principles can be practically and quantitatively applied ‘to account for the entirety of language’ (Kay & Fillmore Reference Kay and Fillmore1999: 1). The volume thus presupposes familiarity with constructionist approaches and addresses itself primarily to established researchers (readers seeking an introductory overview should refer to Hoffmann Reference Hoffmann2022 or Ungerer & Hartmann Reference Ungerer and Hartmann2023); its aim is to create a common ground within a broad and methodologically sparse field, and to inform about the topics emerging across CxG’s multiple subdomains.
The handbook includes contributions that address both foundational concerns and cutting-edge developments. Early chapters revisit key principles of CxG (chapters 2, 4, 5, 10) and related theories like Frame Semantics (chapters 1, 3, partially 9). However, the novelty of this volume is the breadth and interdisciplinary perspective, showcasing its intersections with adjacent fields such as conversation analysis (chapter 12), typology and variation analysis (chapters 17, 18, 19), discourse analysis (chapter 20), language learning and teaching (chapter 23), as well as stylometry and literature studies (chapter 24). A notable feature is the inclusion of emerging frontiers in constructionist studies, especially multimodality (chapters 15 and 16) and linguistic creativity (chapter 24). As stated by the editors, the underlying narrative is to move from ‘the issues of meaning, broadly conceived, as a foundational component of the constructional enterprise and draw attention to the communicative aspects of constructional analyses’ (p. 5). In other words, the focus is on how language is used in real interactions (dialogue, functional amalgams) and across its variations (depending on sociocultural situations and multilingual scenarios). Contributions exploring less ‘mainstream’ branches such as discourse, pragmatics and social interaction emphasise how constructions operate not just as linguistic units, but as meaning-making resources in context, and underline the need to extend research beyond traditional use cases (e.g. argument structures) and to replicate findings across languages other than English.
Another fil rouge that connects all chapters is the emphasis on quantitative approaches: many contributions across the sections offer detailed reviews of specific methods applied in constructionist studies, drawing from experimental psycholinguistics (chapter 8), network analysis (chapter 9) and computational linguistics (from classic corpus linguistics in chapters 6 and 7 to language models and AI in chapters 21 and 22). Ultimately, what emerges is the need and the urgency to move research in a more quantitative direction, operationalising theoretical constructs through empirical metrics and computational modelling. Importantly, this quantitative turn does not displace the rigorous qualitative analysis that has long characterised CxG, but rather complements it, creating a methodological synergy where detailed constructional analyses inform and are validated by large-scale empirical studies. This methodological shift reflects a broader maturation of the field, as CxG seeks to ground its theoretical claims in replicable, data-driven evidence. The handbook thus not only documents the current state of quantitative methods in constructionist research but also raises central questions about the future development of the framework.
The handbook is structured in six parts: (I) ‘The constructional view of language’ (pp. 21–146), (II) ‘Methodological and empirical foundations of constructional research’ (pp. 47–246), (III) ‘Case studies in constructional morphosyntax’ (pp. 247–334), (IV) ‘Multimodality and Construction Grammar’ (pp. 335–436), (V) ‘Constructions in sociocultural and typological variation’ (pp. 437–540) and (VI) ‘Constructional applications’ (pp. 541–647). Given both the complexity of individual contributions and the vast number of theoretical and methodological issues they raise, a detailed discussion of each chapter is not feasible within the constraints of this review. What follows is thus a concise overview of the main content of each contribution.
Part I describes some foundational concepts and definitions underpinning CxGs at different linguistic levels, from morphology (chapter 4) to syntax (chapter 2), semantics (chapters 1 and 3) and pragmatics (chapter 5). Yoshiko Matsumoto (chapter 1) reviews the core tenets of Frame Semantics theory with a focus on the notion of ‘frame’ (cognitive, interactional and linguistic); centred on direct examples from German and Japanese, the author exemplifies the integration between Frame Semantics and CxG. In parallel, chapter 3, by Lars Borin and Benjamin Lyngfelt, introduces the specific characteristics of Framenets and Constructicons, the two resources developed to describe the organisation of frames and constructions, respectively. These resources have been the first examples of computational application to CxG, and the recent development in Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) (chapters 21 and 22) raises concerns about the need and type of implementation in future research. Taking on a relatively new domain, Jenny Audring and Ray Jackendoff discuss how to formalise morphology using a constructional approach, linking the theoretical paradigms of Construction Morphology and Relational Morphology (chapter 4). Apart from demonstrating how constructionist approaches can explain morphological issues, this contribution addresses central theoretical issues in CxG, such as productivity, non-compositionality, relations across constructions and organisation of constructional networks through the lens of the grammar of words. Hans Boas, by contrast, contextualises the central concepts of constructional syntax, comparing especially Berkeley CxG and Cognitive CxG (chapter 2). The author outlines a novel proposal for systematically identifying, describing and analysing constructions and their interaction, emphasising the importance of this research for constructicography (cf. chapter 3). Finally, Karen Sullivan approaches the question of meaning representation through the example of metaphoric language (chapter 5). Starting from an introduction of the basics of Conceptual Metaphor theory and using specific examples, the chapter claims that the relationship between constructions and metaphor cannot be explained by more general semantic principles that apply in the same way to both metaphoric and non-metaphoric uses of constructions.
Part II focuses on the methodological basis and tools implemented within the constructionist paradigm. On the one side, Martin Hilpert offers a comprehensive introduction to frequency (chapter 6), a notion historically linked with the definition of construction and fundamental to language processing and productivity. On the other side, Stefan Th. Gries (chapter 7) provides an updated overview of different corpus linguistic methods and concrete applications, such as corpus metrics and statistical and complex computational experiments (i.e. automatic identification of constructions). Both chapters exemplify how quantitative approaches have sustained the advancement of the theory itself. Conversely, Florent Perek discusses the use of experimental approaches in CxG, with a focus on comprehension, demonstrating how empirical studies validate many theoretical assumptions of CxG (chapter 8). On a different note, chapter 9, by Lotte Sommerer and Freek Van de Velde, introduces a less familiar method in CxG: network theory. Drawing from data science, the chapter reviews the classic hierarchical organisation of constructions through the lens of network theory, stating the urgent need to translate the theoretical idea of a ‘network of constructions’ into operative and quantitative terms.
Part III includes three examples of questions raised in constructionist work. The opening chapter (chapter 10) by Remi van Trijp focuses on the debate around formalisation, which remains controversial across the different branches of CxG (Berkeley CxG, Cognitive CxG, Radical CxG, Sign-Based CxG and Fluid CxG). This chapter provides crucial grounding, describing the complex theoretical landscape of the framework; as such, it might have appeared in part I. Conversely, Laura A. Michaelis (chapter 11) uses the English phenomenon of functional amalgams to address combinability of constructions (close to chapter 2) and the adaptive strategies speakers employ when encountering imperfect structures, moving the debate of CxG towards real-use scenarios (rather than idealised sentence forms). With a similar aim of modelling actual language use, specifically spoken language, Jan Lindström integrates conversation analysis into constructional approaches (chapter 12). The main goal is to enrich construction representation by including features that capture conventional aspects of dialogic patterns. While these chapters offer crucial insights into debated topics in CxG, this section is the least coherent overall, making it difficult to identify close connections among the three contributions.
On the contrary, parts IV and V clearly group articles on relatively new topics in CxG: multimodality and linguistic variation, respectively. The chapters in part IV connect construction representation to non-verbal aspects of communication, such as prosody (chapters 13 and 14) and gestural information (chapters 15 and 16). In chapter 13, Nigel G. Ward models conventional combinations of prosodic patterns and pragmatic functions in terms of prosodic constructions, and delineates their difference with grammatical ones. From a similar perspective, Pedro Gras (chapter 14) selects the insubordinate construction as a case for analysing the interaction between discourse, grammar and the dependence of meaning on prosody. Another aspect of face-to-face situations is that speakers use not only language (i.e. verbal constructions) but also gestures. While the inclusion of gestures in CxG is considered an emergent topic, it remains problematic how to account for gesture and verbal information in a single formalism; chapter 15 by Elisabeth Zima specifically reviews the current state of the art in including gestures in construction representation. A final contribution on multimodality in constructionist approaches is provided by Sherman Wilcox and Rocío Martínez (chapter 16), who offer an overview of works that employ the notion of construction in the analysis of the morphology and syntax of sign languages (ASL and Argentine Sign Language).
Part V reviews different aspects of linguistic variation, from a typological review (chapter 17) to language contact (chapter 18), language-internal variation (chapter 19) and discourse pragmatics (chapter 20). From all these contributions emerges a shift from the traditional focus on an ‘idealised’ individual speaker towards accounting for the shared nature of linguistic organisation, as similarly formulated in chapters 11 and 12. William Croft highlights the parallelisms between CxG and typology through the lens of the specific formalism of Radical CxG (chapter 17); the contribution offers a substantial introduction to the analytic problems inherent in making cross-linguistic comparisons. From the same perspective, chapter 18 focuses on the replication of constructions in multilingual settings, a relatively new field of investigation in constructionist studies. Here, Marianne Mithun reviews several examples of changes in grammatical structure through various kinds of borrowings induced by language contact, arguing that much of what is replicated in these situations are indeed constructions or construction features. The chapter informs both theories: CxG represents a useful tool for analysing contact phenomena and, vice versa, the study of grammatical changes in contact situations can shed more light on the nature of language and enrich the CxG formalisation. Additionally, Timothy Colleman and Dirk Noël focus specifically on the synchronic geographical, social and cultural conditioning of linguistic structure (‘lectal variation’), linking the rising field of Cognitive Sociolinguistics with CxG (chapter 19). Selecting qualitative and quantitative case studies from several languages, the authors not only assess the nature of various social variables in comparing particular constructional variants in a given language, but also advocate for a further effort in explicitly accounting for these phenomena. Lastly, Jan-Ola Östman introduces Construction Discourse, investigating what is needed to formulate a discourse function into construction representation (chapter 20). This contribution represents a more theoretical attempt to bring together discourse and pragmatic features within the CxG systematisation, moving beyond the analysis of single sentences.
Finally, the chapters in part VI demonstrate how CxG can be applied in domains that have been traditionally excluded from ‘mainstream’ research. Katrien Beuls and Paul Van Eecke discuss the close connection between CxG and AI (chapter 21). They focus on how methods and techniques from the field of AI have contributed to the formalisation of a computational representation of CxG (especially the formalism of Fluid CxG). At the same time, they argue that CxG could be employed by researchers in AI working on intelligent agents who communicate, supported by two studies on language acquisition and opinion dynamics in social contexts using intelligent agents. This subject is further surveyed in chapter 22, which is the result of a collaborative effort among Harish Tayyar Madabushi, Laurence Romain, Petar Milin and Dagmar Divjak. The contribution offers a comprehensive review of computational approaches to CxG, distinguishing methods to analyse text (see also chapters 7 and 9) and computational CxG focusing on the modelling of constructional analyses (see also chapter 21). At the same time, it situates the questions of CxG in relation to the recent advances of deep learning models: after synthesising the key concepts behind language models, the authors raise questions about their ability to acquire constructional information, addressing the concerns about the lack of cognitive plausibility of these architectures. The authors conclude by identifying two pressing research fields, namely richer computational formalisation of constructicons and language models as a testbed for learning mechanisms.
The final two chapters offer an example of a constructional application that goes beyond traditional methods. In chapter 23, Sabine De Knop demonstrates how CxG should not be limited to theoretical studies but can be extended to applied domains, such as language learning and teaching. Indeed, second language learning is driven by frequency effects and the conventional form–function combinations represented by constructions. Relying on examples from French and German, the author illustrates strategies of (semantic) scaffolding, structural and syntactic priming, and embodied cognition. This chapter represents a linking node with topics approached in previous parts, as this research field interfaces with corpus linguistics, typology and contrastive analysis. In the final chapter (24), Alexander Bergs applies a constructional perspective to the analysis of literary language. Based on several examples from literary texts, he illustrates how this specialised language is indeed composed of specific constructions that need to be represented as well. Notably, the contribution concludes with the debate about how to formalise linguistic creativity in a constructional approach.
As this synopsis outlined, the handbook presents a comprehensive view of CxG that ranges from theoretical principles to empirical methodologies, consistently treating language as a complex, integrated system rather than a collection of discrete modules. The volume makes a substantial contribution to deepening our understanding of CxG as a theoretical lens for contemporary linguistic description and analysis at multiple levels, leaving nonetheless some crucial questions open. First, the question of formalisation emerges as still the most critical unresolved issue in CxG. This challenge has two dimensions: achieving greater theoretical unification across its different branches (Radical CxG, Cognitive CxG, Fluid CxG, etc.) and developing representational frameworks sophisticated enough to capture not only syntax–semantic mappings but the full range of linguistic phenomena, including prosody, gesture, discourse structure and pragmatic meaning. Whether this is best accomplished through a single unified formalism or through well-defined interfaces between complementary representation systems remains an open question, one that some contributions acknowledge but do not definitively resolve. Additionally, while the handbook includes a plethora of case studies, it largely avoids detailed discussion of how constructional representations can be implemented concretely, specifically how the formalism is not used just for descriptive purposes but explicitly for modelling language processing, except for chapter 21 (for another attempt towards a constructionist model of language comprehension, see Blache et al. Reference Blache, Rambelli, Chersoni and Lenc2026).
In conclusion, The Cambridge Handbook of Construction Grammar is a landmark publication that reflects the maturity and diversity of constructionist approaches nearly half a century after its first appearance. Its breadth, empirical richness and interdisciplinary engagement make it an invaluable resource for linguists working on English and beyond. For readers with only basic knowledge of CxG, the handbook offers concrete examples of both theoretical insight and practical analytical tools, presenting several methodological approaches that provide a hands-on introduction to the framework. At the same time, this volume represents a milestone for researchers working within CxG: it establishes the state of the art in current research and, crucially, identifies the issues that remain to be addressed. Overall, it paves the way for future research in usage-based, functional and cognitively informed approaches to grammar, advancing towards a model of language grounded in variability, multimodality and communicative intents.
