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The impact of Spanish on English vocabulary since 1901

An overview of the various subject fields influenced by Spanish in recent decades

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 October 2017

Julia Schultz
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While there are numerous investigations of the impact of English on Spanish vocabulary, the opposite direction of lexical borrowing has as yet received fairly little attention. Spanish-derived words and meanings which have been taken over into English in the last few decades have been relatively neglected. The present article gives essential insight into the influence of Spanish on the English lexicon since 1901. I assign the different twentieth and twenty-first century Spanish borrowings to various lexical domains in order to offer an overview of the subject areas and fields of life to which Spanish has added new words and senses in recent times.

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Research Article
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English Today , Volume 34 , Issue 1 , March 2018 , pp. 26 - 31
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Introduction

While there are numerous investigations of the impact of English on Spanish vocabulary, the opposite direction of lexical borrowing has as yet received fairly little attention. Spanish-derived words and meanings which have been taken over into English in the last few decades have been relatively neglected. The present article gives essential insight into the influence of Spanish on the English lexicon since 1901.Footnote 1 I assign the different twentieth and twenty-first century Spanish borrowings to various lexical domains in order to offer an overview of the subject areas and fields of life to which Spanish has added new words and senses in recent times.

The findings provided in this paper result from a close analysis of the linguistic documentary evidence included in the Oxford English Dictionary Online (henceforth referred to as OED Online). It should be noted that the complete text of the OED is currently being revised. The digitalized version of the OED can be searched online at <http://www.oed.com>, comprising the Second Edition published in 1989 (henceforth referred to as OED2), the volumes of the 1993 and 1997 OED Additions Series, and several thousands of updated and new dictionary entries which belong to the Third Edition of the OED (OED3). The linguistic data of the OED is complemented every quarter of the year with the findings of the revision process.Footnote 2 The OED Online includes specific search options which enable its users to carry out a comprehensive search of all the lexical items which have a Spanish etymon in their word origin.Footnote 3

The following search makes it possible to identify the body of 20th- and 21st-century Spanish borrowings recorded in the OED Online: Advanced Search: Entries containing ‘Spanish’ in ‘Etymology’ and ‘1901-’ in ‘Date of Entry’. The various Spanish borrowings were retrieved from the OED Online during the winter of 2016. The sample comprised 525 words and meanings adopted from Spanish and its national varieties, such as Mexican or Cuban Spanish. Acquisitions from American Spanish make up an essential proportion of the borrowings under review. An example is cha -cha and its spelling variant cha -cha -cha, which refers to a style of Latin-American dance. According to the OED2, the word was adopted from American Spanish into English in 1954. The sample of borrowed words and meanings also encompasses lexical items which have a ‘mixed’ etymological description in the OED Online, i.e. borrowings which were partly adopted from Spanish and partly from another foreign language. All of the different types of borrowings attested in the OED Online were investigated in the present study. The various words and senses were analysed as taken over from Spanish as the immediate source language. For example, the culinary term guacamole, denoting a type of dish typical of Mexican cuisine, was identified as a borrowing of American Spanish guacamole, notwithstanding that Spanish had borrowed it from Nahuatl ahuacamolli, a compound formed from the nouns ahuacatl ‘avocado’ and molli ‘sauce’ (see OED2).

Borrowing serves as the common designation of the process in which a new word or a meaning is adopted from another language. The term can also relate to the word or the meaning that is taken over during this process. The collection of Spanish borrowings retrieved from the OED encompasses words that have only been subjected to minor adaptation after being introduced into English. For example, this is true for the noun inti, which specifies a monetary unit valid in Peru from 1985 to 1991. The 1993 OED ADD Series informs us that the word is pronounced /inˈti/ in English. An additional example is pistolero, a term for ‘a gunman’, ‘a gangster’ (OED3) in Spain or Spanish-speaking countries. In the OED3 we find the pronunciation /ˌpɪstəˈlε:rəʊ/ for British English and /ˌpɪstəˈlεrəʊ/ for American English. Clearly, the spelling of the two borrowings was not changed during the borrowing process, and their pronunciation (including the Spanish stress pattern) still reflects foreign influence.

The body of 20th- and 21st-century Spanish borrowings also consists of lexical items which have become more assimilated to English, such as the verb to torry ‘[t]o provoke and fight (a bull)’ (OED2), an adaptation of Spanish torear. The nominal phraseFootnote 4 liberation theology, a religious movement in Christian theology which was developed in South America, can be adduced as a further example of an anglicized borrowing. It represents a loan translation of the Spanish teología de la liberación.

Subject fields influenced by Spanish since 1901

As already mentioned, the number of 20th- and 21st-century Spanish borrowings listed in the electronic OED is 525 words and meanings. The different lexical items were divided into nine overriding subject fields and their related subgroups. The assignment of several specialized terms was based on their classification in the OED Online. The general categorization of the Spanish borrowings is my own.

Here is an overview of the raw and relative frequencies of the various Spanish borrowings in the manifold areas and fields of life. Domains with a comparatively high number of adopted words and meanings follow areas where the influence of Spanish was less intense. For each subject area, some illustrative examples of words of Spanish origin are adduced:

  1. (1) Technology and Electronics (3 borrowings, i.e. 0.6%), e.g. calandria, n. (1929); mesa, n. (adopting a meaning from electronics in 1958).

  2. (2) Archaeology (4 borrowings, i.e. 0.8%), e.g. naveta, n. (1902); epipalaeolithic, adj. (1921).

  3. (3) Mathematics and the Humanities (30 borrowings, i.e. 5.7%)

    1. (3.1) Mathematics and Logic (1 borrowing, i.e. 0.2%), e.g. tilde, n. (adopting a meaning from mathematics and logic in 1958).

    2. (3.2) Theology, Church and Religion (9 borrowings, i.e. 1.7%), e.g. santero, n. (1931); liberation theology, n. phr. (1970).

    3. (3.3) Language and Linguistics (20 borrowings, i.e. 3.8%), e.g. Mixteco, n. (1911); pochismo, n. (1944); silbador, n. (1957).

  4. (4) Leisure and Pleasure (61 borrowings, i.e. 11.6%)

    1. (4.1) Tourism (3 borrowings, i.e. 0.6%), e.g. costa, n. (1964); apartotel, n. (1965).

    2. (4.2) Entertainment and Leisure Activities (4 borrowings, i.e. 0.8%), e.g. despedida, n. (1929); telenovela, n. (1961); quinceañera, n. (1972).

    3. (4.3) Games and Gambling (6 borrowings, i.e. 1.1%), e.g. quinella, n. (1902); canasta, n. (1948).

    4. (4.4) Sports (8 borrowings, i.e. 1.5%), e.g. lucha libre, n. phr. (1943); futsal, n. (1987); galactico, n. (2003).

    5. (4.5) Bullfighting (40 borrowings, i.e. 7.6%), e.g. olé, int. (1914); to torry, v. (1936); rejoneo, n. (1961).

  5. (5) The Natural Sciences (64 borrowings, i.e. 12.2%)

    1. (5.1) Mineralogy (2 borrowings, i.e. 0.4%), e.g. coronadite, n. (1904).

    2. (5.2) Biology (2 borrowings, i.e. 0.4%), e.g. nucleolonema, n. (1951); autopoiesis, n. (adopting a meaning from Spanish in 1974).

    3. (5.2.1) Zoology (12 borrowings, i.e. 2.3%), e.g. vinchuca, n. (1932); teporingo, n. (1969).

    4. (5.2.2) Botany (28 borrowings, i.e. 5.3%), e.g. guayule, n. (1906); babaco, n. (1924); sinsemilla, n. (1975).

    5. (5.3) Medicine (7 borrowings, i.e. 1.3%), e.g. curandero, n. (1943); turista, n. (1970).

    6. (5.3.1) Veterinary Medicine (2 borrowings, i.e. 0.4%), e.g. aftosa, n. (1903); renguerra, n. (1917).

    7. (5.3.2) Histology (3 borrowings, i.e. 0.6%), e.g. microglia, n. (1924); oligodendroglia, n. (1924).

    8. (5.4) Geology and Geography (8 borrowings, i.e. 1.5%), e.g. altiplano, n. (1910); La Niña, n. phr. (1981).

  6. (6) Civilization and Politics (72 borrowings, i.e. 13.7%)

    1. (6.1) Economy and Business (4 borrowings, i.e. 0.8%), e.g. developmentalism, n. (adopting a meaning from Spanish in 1970); maquiladora, n. (1978).

    2. (6.2) Security, Crime and Criminalistics (8 borrowings, i.e. 1.5%), e.g. estafa, n. (1903); pistolero, n. (1932); Seguridad, n. (1937).

    3. (6.3) Insurrection, Revolution, War and the Military (24 borrowings, i.e. 4.6%), e.g. insurrecto, n. (1907); fifth column, n. phr. (1936); Sendero Luminoso, n. phr. (1981).

    4. (6.4) Administration, Government and Politics (36 borrowings, i.e. 6.9%), e.g. poblacion, n. (1911); justicialist, adj. (1949); Fidelism, n. (1959).

  7. (7) The Fine Arts and Crafts (81 borrowings, i.e. 15.4%)

    1. (7.1) Architecture and Interior Furnishing (3 borrowings, i.e. 0.6%), e.g. vargueño, n. (1911); modernista, adj. (1924).

    2. (7.2) Literature (6 borrowings, i.e. 1.1%), e.g. cantiga, n. (1915); cosmovision, n. (1969).

    3. (7.3) The Arts and Crafts (10 borrowings, i.e. 1.9%), e.g. cuerda seca, n. phr. (1911); pintoresque, adj. (1969).

    4. (7.4) Dance (22 borrowings, i.e. 4.2%), e.g. rumba, n. (1912); conga, n. (1935); cha - cha/cha - cha - cha, n. (1954); salsero, n. (1972).

    5. (7.5) Music (40 borrowings, i.e. 7.6%), e.g. bongo, n. (1920); mariachi, n. (1929); musica norteña, n. phr. (1974).

  8. (8) Gastronomy (91 borrowings, i.e. 17.3%)

    1. (8.1) Kitchen Utensils (4 borrowings, i.e. 0.8%), e.g. molcajete, n. (1906); parrilla, n. (first attested as a name for a kitchen appliance in 1964).

    2. (8.2) Restaurants and Taverns (6 borrowings, i.e. 1.1%), e.g. tasca, n. (1957); taqueria, n. (1982).

    3. (8.3) Wine (7 borrowings, i.e. 1.3%), e.g. rosado, n. (1956); cava, n. (1978).

    4. (8.4) Drink (15 borrowings, i.e. 2.9%), e.g. mojito, n. (1934); cortado, n. (1985).

    5. (8.4.1) Tobacco and Intoxicants (8 borrowings, i.e. 1.5%), e.g. pot, n. (1938); basuco, n. (1983).

    6. (8.5) Cookery (51 borrowings, i.e. 9.7%), e.g. guacamole, n. (1920); burrito, n. (1934); tapas, n. (1953); fajita, n. (1971).

  9. (9) People and Everyday Life (109 borrowings, i.e. 20.8%)

    1. (9.1) Habitation and Buildings (2 borrowings, i.e. 0.4%), e.g. finca, n. (1909); palapa, n. (1957).

    2. (9.2) Monetary Units (3 borrowings, i.e. 0.6%), e.g. cordoba, n. (1913); inti, n. (1985).

    3. (9.3) Transport and Travelling (5 borrowings, i.e. 1.0%), e.g. autogiro, n. (1923); salvoconducto, n. (1955).

    4. (9.4) Fashion, Clothing, Footwear and Accessories (11 borrowings, i.e. 2.1%), e.g. peineta, n. (1926); chino(s), n. (1943); Manolo Blahnik(s), n. phr. (1988).

    5. (9.5) Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Farming and Horseriding (15 borrowings, i.e. 2.9%), e.g. bolo, n. (1901); morral, n. (1915); campesino, n. (1937); Dogo Argentino, n. phr. (1989).

    6. (9.6) Communication (20 borrowings, i.e. 3.8%), e.g. picong, n. (circa 1938); salud, int. (1938); mierda, int. (1970).

    7. (9.7) Society, Human Behaviour, Characteristics and Feelings (53 borrowings, i.e. 10.1%), chica, n. (1907); machismo, n. (1941); movida, n. (1973).

Of the lexical items identified as 20th- and 21st-century Spanish borrowings in the OED Online, 10 words (i.e. 1.9%) cannot be clearly grouped into a specific subject field. For example, this holds for ambiente which refers to ‘ambiance’, ‘atmosphere’. The borrowing belongs to a group of lexical items which are given a ‘mixed’ etymology in the OED. It was taken over from both Spanish and Italian in 1926.

As is obvious, the modern areas of technology and electronics comprise the smallest proportion of Spanish borrowings. Calandria, which first occurred in 1929 in English, may serve as an example. It specifies a heating component in an evaporator or a nuclear reactor. An additional example is mesa. The borrowing has been recorded in the OED3 since 1958 as a technical term for a type of electronic device. In this sense, the word assumes an attributive function in English, as in mesa diode (see OED3).Footnote 5

The field of archaeology equally comprises a fairly small number of borrowed words. Most of them are technical expressions the typical native speaker of English would usually not be familiar with. An example is naveta, a specific term for ‘[a] type of Bronze Age megalithic chambered tomb’ (OED3). The word was adopted from Spanish in the early 20th century, i.e. in 1902.

Some of the borrowings which have been taken over into English since 1901 belong to the field of mathematics and the humanities. They consist of Spanish-derived words and meanings in mathematics and logic, theology, church and religion, and language and linguistics. Examples are tilde, santero and Mixteco. Of these, tilde has been documented as a technical term for a symbol in mathematics and logic since 1958 evident in the following OED2 quotation:

1958 New Scientist 10 July 364/2 If A is a matrix it is usual to denote the transpose of A by A′ or A*, and the trace of A by tr A. However, the author plays the part of ‘the odd man out’ by placing a tilde (˜) over A to denote the transpose of A.

Like its Spanish equivalent, tilde can also specify a type of diacritic sign, as the following OED2 quotation shows:

1975 J. Butcher Copy - editing xi. 205 Superscript letters and tildes (nunnation marks) in contractions are normalized to modern usage unless there are good reasons to the contrary.

Santero serves as a culture-specific term in English for ‘a maker of religious images’ (OED2) in Mexico and Spanish-speaking regions in the South West of the United States. Under the impact of Spanish, the borrowing adopted an additional sense in English, denoting ‘[a] priest (or priestess) of a religious cult, esp[ecially] santeria’ (OED2) as evidenced by the following OED2 quotation:

1950 Southwestern Jrnl. Anthropol. 6 64 The worship of African deities, as it is practised in Cuba today, is known as santeria. The deities and the men and women who work with them are known by the Spanish words santos, santeros, and santeras, or by the Yoruba words orisha, babalorisha, and iyalorisha.

Language and linguistics comprises 20 borrowings, 17 of which represent the names of languages, such as Mixteco, any of a variety of languages spoken by an American Indian people native to the South of Mexico. Its Spanish source term mixteco ultimately goes back to Nahuatl (see OED3).

Furthermore, Spanish has provided English with a number of lexical items related to leisure and pleasure in the 20th and 21st centuries, encompassing borrowings in tourism (e.g. apartotel), entertainment and leisure activities (e.g. telenovela), games and gambling (e.g. canasta), sports (e.g. futsal, galactico) and bullfighting (e.g. olé, rejoneo). Of these, telenovela and futsal were influenced by both Spanish and Portuguese. The former refers to ‘a Spanish-language or Portuguese-language television soap’ originating in Latin America, and the latter is used to designate ‘[a] modified form of Association Football played with five players per side on a smaller pitch (usually indoors), with a smaller and less bouncy ball’ (OED3). The field of sports also comprises the latest borrowing which is given a Spanish etymon in the OED. This is the noun galactico, relating to ‘a football superstar’ or, more generally, ‘a pre-eminent figure in any field, esp[ecially] sport’ (OED3). The word was adopted from Spanish in 2003. It seems noteworthy that the majority of 20th-century borrowings associated with bullfighting are technical expressions. An example is the noun rejoneo, a culture-specific term for ‘the art of bullfighting on horseback with rejones’ (OED3), mostly practised in Spain and Spanish-speaking countries.

In addition, Spanish has functioned as a donor of several natural science terms, comprising borrowed words and senses in the domains of mineralogy, biology, medicine, geology and geography with their related subcategories. Some of them are highly specific terms formed from neo-classical constituents. The histology term microglia, which denotes particular types of cell, serves as an example. It was coined from the combining form micro- and the noun glia, after Spanish microglía. The majority of Spanish borrowings from the natural sciences are flora and fauna designations. Most of them specify plants or animals found in Spain or Spanish-speaking areas. Examples are babaco, specifying a variety of tree originally grown in Ecuador, and vinchuca, a type of bug native to South and Central America.

The field of civilization and politics has equally been enriched by Spanish in the recent past. The majority of words of Spanish origin in this domain are associated with insurrection, revolution, war and the military, administration, government and politics. Examples are fifth column and Fidelism. Of these, fifth column is a loan translation from Spanish quinta columna in 1936. The phrase was initially used in the context of the Spanish Civil War, when General Emilio Mola claimed that besides his four columns of armies approaching Madrid, a fifth column of supporting rebels was waiting within the city in order to subvert the Republican government. The borrowing came to be used allusively in English, designating ‘a body of one's supporters in an attacked or occupied foreign country, or the enemy's supporters in one's own country’ (OED2). It is also documented in a transferred sense in current language use, as is exemplified in the following OED2 citation:

1942 Mind 51 166 Hence Prof. Collingwood arrives at the startling conclusion that psychologists are a group of fifth column conspirators, whose real aim is to destroy western civilisation from within.

Fidelism describes ‘[t]he methods and policies of Fidel Castro's political administration in Cuba’ (OED2). It was adapted from the Spanish Fidelismo in 1959.

Additional fields influenced by Spanish since 1901 are the fine arts and crafts. Borrowings in these areas encompass the noun vargue ño, a variety of cabinet produced in 16th- and 17th-century Spain, and the adjective modernista ‘modernist’, which occurs in association with a style of architecture, art, etc. typical of 20th-century Spain and Spanish America. Examples from the OED3 are presented in the following citations:

1960 G. R. Collins Antonio Gaudi 127/1 (note) Another distinctively Modernista architect was Jeronimo F. Granell Manresa.

1999 Scotl. on Sunday (Electronic ed.) 16 May The Cau Ferrat … houses works from the Modernista period – Miro and Picasso included.

Further examples are the adjectival borrowing pintoresque ‘[f]orming a suitable subject for painting’ (OED3), a rare term in present-day English which goes back to the Spanish adjective pintoresco, and cosmovision, which occurs in literary criticism for ‘a particular way of viewing the world or of understanding the universe’ (OED3), as evidenced by the following OED3 citation:

1982 A. de Campos in R. Kostelanetz Avant - garde Trad. in Lit. 264 The poem … assumes on its own the configuration of a fantastic ideogram of Poundian cosmovision.

Spain and Spanish-speaking countries are internationally noted for their dance and music styles. Therefore, it might be expected that Spanish has added borrowings to these fields in recent decades, and this is indeed correct. Most of the lexical items to do with the fine arts and crafts fall into the domains of dance and music. Examples are the common borrowings rumba, conga, bongo and mariachi.

Gastronomy constitutes the second largest field to which Spanish contributed in the form of new words and meanings. The area consists of borrowings referring to kitchen utensils, such as molcajete, a type of mortar employed in Mexican cookery. It also contains borrowings associated with restaurants and taverns (e.g. taqueria), wine (e.g. rosado, relating to Spanish rosé wine), drink, tobacco and intoxicants, such as mojito, a cocktail initially prepared in Cuba, and basuco, a borrowing from Columbian Spanish denoting a cigarette which includes cocaine. The Spanish-derived terms for dishes make up the highest proportion of borrowings among the gastronomy items. We find a number of widespread designations of various delicacies in the OED entries. Examples are burrito, tapas and fajita.

The domain of people and everyday life comprises the largest number of Spanish borrowings. The area consists of seven subgroups, including borrowings to do with habitation and buildings (e.g. finca), monetary units (e.g. cordoba, a currency of Nicaragua), transport and travelling (e.g. autogiro, a variety of aircraft), fashion, clothing, footwear and accessories (e.g. chino(s), a fairly common term for types of trousers, and Manolo Blahnik, ‘[a] type of fashionable women's high-heeled shoe’ (OED3), reflecting the name of its Spanish designer). Furthermore, it encompasses Spanish-derived terms from agriculture, animal husbandry, farming and horseriding, such as campesino, ‘[a] peasant farmer’ (OED2), Dogo Argentino, a breed of dog originating in Argentina, and morral, which has become a historical term in present-day English. The word is mainly used with reference to ‘a horse's nosebag’ (OED3) in Spanish-speaking regions of the West of the United States, as evidenced in the following OED3 quotation:

1955 W. Foster-Harris Look of Old West vii. 221 He would very likely keep the money on the wagon in a leather morral or nosebag.

People and everyday life also contains borrowings relating to communication, among them several interjections which may render a conversation more vivid. This is valid for mierda, an exclamation expressing anger or indignation. The word is comparatively frequently laid into the mouth of speakers of Spanish, as is illustrated by the following OED3 quotation:

1986 W. G. Tapply Rodent of Doubt (1987) Prol. 13 Felix felt his foot slip on some ice … ‘Mierda!’ he muttered.

In addition, the field encompasses a substantial proportion of borrowings referring to society, human behaviour, characteristics and feelings. For example, one can mention here chica, a word chiefly recorded in American English for ‘a girl or young woman’ (OED3), and machismo, a borrowing from Mexican Spanish, denoting ‘[t]he quality of being macho; manliness, male virility, or masculine pride’ (OED3).

Conclusion

The vocabulary which has been imported from Spanish into English since 1901 is characterized by its great diversity, ranging from culture-specific or technical terms which appear to be unknown to the ‘ordinary’ native speaker of English to words which have made it into everyday language use. A characteristic of the sample of borrowings considered in the current paper is that a substantial number of acquisitions comes from the national varieties of Spanish, such as Cuban, Columbian, Ecuadorean and Mexican Spanish. One might argue that these types of lexical items contribute to the diversity and ‘exotic’ nature of the English lexicon in a great variety of domains and spheres of life.

Appendix

In this article, the following abbreviations are used:

/…/

phonological transcription

‘…’

meaning

adj.

adjective

int.

interjection

n.

noun

phr.

phrase

v.

verb

JULIA SCHULTZ currently teaches English and German linguistics at the University of Heidelberg. Several years ago, she completed her PhD in linguistics on 20th century borrowings from French into English at Heidelberg University. She has also written a study about the influence of German on English in recent times. Her research interests focus on language contact, word-formation and the use of online dictionaries and corpora in lexicological research. Email:

Footnotes

1 For a comprehensive investigation of the Spanish influence on the English lexicon since 1801, see Schultz (Reference Schultzforthcoming).

2 For comprehensive information about the revision of the OED, see Durkin (Reference Durkin1999: 1–49).

3 For details on the production and benefits of an electronic form of the OED, see Brewer (Reference Brewer2004: 1–43) and Brewer (Reference Brewer2007: 213–57).

4 The grammatical terms employed in this paper are based on Quirk et al.’s Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (2008). For the conception of phrase, see Quirk et al. (Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik2008: 2.3ff and 2.25ff).

5 For the meaning and use of additional unfamiliar Spanish-derived terms, see the relevant information given in the OED.

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