PPNA (GF-V)

The architectural remains and other cultural materials recovered in the northern sector indicate the presence of a small village with three architectural levels during the PPNA (Figure 3). The early and middle PPNA levels (V2–3) feature independent circular pit structures alongside interconnected building complexes, reflecting a cohesive construction approach (Figure 3). Three distinct types of structures are apparent—round, quadrangular and C-planned—all with subterranean floors, plastered walls and burials beneath the floors (Figure 4). One of the pit structures (K60) forms a building complex, with two interconnected round units attached to the north and north-east of the main chamber, sharing walls. To the south of a C-planned attachment on the western side of the main chamber, the floors of several rounded storage features (silos) associated with the structure have been recovered. The C-planned units were used concurrently with independent round-planned pit shelters.

Figure 3.

Architectural drawings of the Gre Fılla PPNA levels (drawn by author).

Figure 4.

Samples of round, C-shaped and rectangular buildings from the PPNA, with some architectural details inside the buildings (figure by author).

The inner architectural features and associated assemblages indicate that these structures were mainly used as dwellings; however, the architecture of one structure (K41.3; Figure 5) indicates a different purpose. Two semi-circular units were attached to the main wall of the structure, each covering an area of 1m². Unlike the subterranean floor of the main chamber, the stone-paved floors of these units were built above ground, and their interior walls are mud-plastered. Two stone stelae, each approximately 1m tall, were incorporated into the walls of the main chamber, and the earliest stone-built pillar in the settlement was found on its floor. Taken together, these architectural features and the size of the oval-shaped structure (16m²) may indicate a communal function, making K41.3 the only communal structure uncovered from GF-V.

Figure 5.

Structure K41.3 where the earliest example of a stele and pillar are found, as is the impression of a mat on the floor in front of the perimeter wall (images from the excavation archive; figure by author).

The locations of open spaces, likely used for communal activities, seem to have stayed consistent throughout the PPNA, despite minor shifts in the surrounding structures. These areas contain fire pits, hearths and ash deposits with many animal bones.

A total of eight earthen burials have been uncovered beneath the floors and walls of some structures (K60, K57, K41.3). Individuals were laid in flexed and semi-flexed positions, oriented in east–west or north-west to south-east directions, mostly facing west. A range of grave goods, including beads, microliths, shells and animal bones, reflects the mortuary practices of the community. Two burials contain dog skeletons (Ekinbaş Can & Ökse Reference Ekinbaş Can and Ökse2024): one was laid headless on the fill of building K60 during its abandonment; the other was found among stone debris beneath the western wall of building K50, under two disarticulated human skeletons along with several horns and numerous animal bones. Similar burial practices have been identified at Demirköy (Rosenberg Reference Rosenberg, Özdoğan, Başgelen and Kuniholm2011b) and Çayönü (Erim-Özdoğan Reference Erim-Özdoğan, Özdoğan, Başgelen and Kuniholm2011).

PPNB (GF- IV)

GF-IV shows continuous habitation throughout the PPNB, spanning from the early ninth to the mid-eighth millennium BC. The architectural plans from this period include quadrangular cell-planned structures, large-chambered buildings, grill-planned structures, round pit-shelters and communal pit-structures that are either oval or quadrangular with rounded corners. The cell-planned buildings are of two types: those with and without buttresses. Large-chambered buildings are categorised as single- or multiroom structures, each further subdivided based on the use of buttresses.

Various types of floors are apparent, including compacted clay, lime-plaster and stone paving, and terrazzo floors have been preserved in one of the communal structures (K7.1A). Architectural elements such as benches, platforms and niches were exclusively used in communal structures (K15.1A, K8.4, G8.4). Both quadrangular buildings and pit structures include postholes, indicating that the roof was supported by wooden beams set in post slots fixed with stones or clay.

Thirteen architectural levels are recognised, organised into four stages (GF-IVA–IVD) based on structural features and settlement layout. The criteria for differentiating phased buildings from communal structures include the sizes of the dwellings, the architectural units associated with these buildings and the organisation of small finds.

The earliest stage (GF-IVD) underwent intense destruction; structural distribution analysis indicates that this stage constitutes only 17 per cent of all PPNB levels. As a result, changes in architectural features are not fully identifiable. The subsequent two stages (GF-IVC & GF-IVB), dating to the early and middle PPNB (8600–7600) (Figure 6), show technological diversity and changes in both dwellings and communal structures. During the latest stage (GF-IVA), corresponding to the late PPNB (7600–7400), the settlement appears to have reduced in size. Unfortunately, the architectural remains and cultural deposits from this stage were later disturbed by the Late Antique cemetery.

Figure 6.

Architectural drawings of the IVB and IVC layers dated to the PPNB, with grill-planned buildings of the PPNB indicated below (figure by author).

A total of 11 earthen graves have been uncovered from beneath the floors of buildings K40, K41.1, K17.3, K32 and K23.6, all from GF-IVD. The individuals were positioned in flexed or semi-flexed poses, oriented in east–west or north-west to south-east directions, mostly facing west, showing continuity with the preceding PPNA burials. Grave goods were also similar, including a variety of beads, microliths, shells and animal bones. A baked clay miniature bowl found in an infant burial beneath the floor of structure K32 is unique to Gre Fılla (Ekinbaş Can Reference Ekinbaş Can and Engin2025a).

Domestic architecture

During GF-V, domestic architecture is predominantly characterised by C-shaped and circular structures. While these structures are mostly seen as dwellings, structure K41.3 appears to have served a communal purpose (see above; Figure 5), a reinterpretation that becomes clearer through later rebuilding phases.

During GF-IV, 125 structures are documented, permitting a comprehensive typological classification across the PPNB levels (Table 2). This typology includes round pit-shelters and cell-planned, grill-planned and multi-roomed quadrangular buildings. GF-IVD consists of buildings with both rounded and quadrangular plans, indicating continuity from GF-V. Towards the end of GF-IVD, dwellings start to cluster around communal structures, reflecting a significant reorganisation in spatial planning and social structure.

The early and middle PPNB settlements (GF-IVC and IVB, respectively) show increasing diversity in domestic architecture. Grill-planned buildings feature a central open space surrounded by narrow chambers, such as K17.1, K17.2 and K20.2B. Notably, structure K20.2B includes asymmetrical side chambers, a stone-paved floor and possible posthole patterns, showing a typological similarity with the early PPNB structures at Çayönü (Erim-Özdoğan Reference Erim-Özdoğan, Özdoğan, Başgelen and Kuniholm2011) and Nevali Çori (Hauptmann Reference Hauptmann, Özdoğan, Başgelen and Kuniholm2011), although K20.2B appears somewhat later in the sequence at Gre Fılla.

Large rectangular structures with one or multiple chambers continue to be present throughout GF-IV. Changes across the 13 PPNB architectural levels are mainly seen in hearth construction and partitioning methods. The appearance of buttressed walls, with buttresses measuring between 0.2 × 0.3m and 0.5 × 0.9m, is significant. These walls were built with limestone and, in later phases, they were plastered with clay. In some buildings, buttresses are paired, appearing on opposite walls (e.g. structures K5, K14A, K13.1, K29) (Figure 7), while in others they appear on only one side (e.g. K11.3, K19.1, K16.1A, K20.1), suggesting functional or structural differences.

Figure 7.

Dwelling buildings of the same type built in the same period (images from the excavation archive; figure by author).

Cell-planned dwellings are seen across all PPNB levels, evolving from simple planned structures in GF-IVD (K36.4) to more complex arrangements in GF-IVB and GF-IVA. Later buildings often feature rectangular or L-shaped central rooms surrounded by smaller mudbrick chambers, sometimes reinforced with internal buttresses. The use of clay plaster on walls and floors shows a growing investment in architectural finish and spatial use.

GF-IVB contains a grouping of identical quadrangular buildings—structures K5, K14.1 and K13.1. These were constructed using the same techniques along identical axes and share similar internal layouts. Their consistent artefact assemblages indicate co-ordinated construction, possibly reflecting standardised domestic or institutional uses within the settlement.

Communal architecture

The architectural record from Gre Fılla shows a consistent pattern of communal structures across the PPNB (GF-IV). Sixteen structures were identified in four separate locations—three in the northern area and one in the southern area (Figure 8)—built in a sequence with only minor variations. Each of these structures, within each location, represents successive renovations throughout the PPNB, and at least four communal buildings were in use at the same time. Although these structures were rebuilt in the same location with similar dimensions, slight axial shifts occurred during each reconstruction. Notably, structure G8.2 in the southern sector is significantly larger than its successor, G8.3.

Figure 8.

Location of communal structures in the northern and southern excavation area (images from the excavation archive; figure by author).

In the early PPNB (GF-IVD), communal buildings feature curvilinear walls, as seen in structure K8.7, echoing the rounded pit-shelters of GF-V. However, from GF-IVC onward, these structures evolved into quadrangular plans with rounded corners, indicating both formal development and architectural standardisation. The consistent presence of four interior stone-built pillars in almost all communal structures (Figure 8), from the earliest levels to the latest, suggests a foundational element of communal architecture.

Yet, internal arrangements within these buildings differ, especially in structures K7.1 and K7.2, which deviate from the typical single-chamber design by including internal chambers. These chambers are symmetrically arranged around the four pillars, forming a quadrangular central space. Over time, these internal sections became more complex, increasing the number of cells and adding architectural features such as terrazzo or clay floors, niches, stelae and passageways. In structure K7.2, a small cell shows signs of functional adaptation, with a window or passage that was intentionally blocked using a flat limestone slab. Comparing communal structures with interior subdivisions reveals a sophisticated understanding of the community’s spatial organisation and social functions, highlighting cultural and architectural development during the PPNB period.