Ion selectivity

The first direct evidence that the bacterial flagellar motor is driven by ions and not ATP hydrolysis was the observation of flagellar rotation in starved Streptococcus or Bacillus subtilis cells, provided with an artificial membrane potential or pH gradient but no means of ATP generation (Manson et al. Reference Manson, Tedesco, Berg, Harold and Van Der Drift1977; Matsuura et al. Reference Matsuura, Shioi and Imae1977). This confirmed earlier indications that the motor was ion-driven (Larsen et al. Reference Larsen, Adler, Gargus and Hogg1974). The existence of Na⁺-driven motors in alkalophilic Bacillus and in Vibrio species was first demonstrated by the dependence of flagellar motility upon sodium concentration and its insensitivity to proton ionophores that collapse the PMF (Chernyak et al. Reference Chernyak, Dibrov, Glagolev, Sherman and Skulachev1983; Hirota & Imae, Reference Hirota and Imae1983; Hirota et al. Reference Hirota, Kitada and Imae1981). There is strong evidence, in the form of numerous functional chimeric motors that mix components from motors with different driving ions (Table 1), that the mechanisms of Na⁺ and H⁺ motors are very similar. The first such chimera reported was made by replacing PomA in the Na⁺-driven V. alginolyticus motor with the highly homologous MotA from the H⁺-driven R. sphaeroides motor (Table 1, line 1) (Asai et al. Reference Asai, Kawagishi, Sockett and Homma1999). The resulting chimera was driven by Na⁺, which ruled out the possibility that ion selectivity was determined by the A stator protein. Subsequent functional chimeras have swapped both A and B stator proteins, the C-terminal domain of FliG and the C- (periplasmic) and N-terminal (membrane spanning) domains of MotB or PomB, into species with a motor that runs on a different type of ion (Asai et al. Reference Asai, Kawagishi, Sockett and Homma2000, Reference Asai, Yakushi, Kawagishi and Homma2003; Gosink & Hase, Reference Gosink and Hase2000; Yorimitsu et al. Reference Yorimitsu, Mimaki, Yakushi and Homma2003). These results have demonstrated that there is no single determining component for ion selectivity. Examples in which the ion selectivity of the chimeric motor has been demonstrated to be different from the native selectivity of each particular component are highlighted by boxes in Table 1. MotX and MotY are not required to specify Na⁺ selectivity (Table 1, lines 5 and 6), but they are required for function if the periplasmic C-terminal domain of the stator B protein is from PomB and the host normally has sodium motors, suggesting a role in stabilising sodium stators (McCarter, Reference Mccarter1994a, Reference Mccarterb). MotX and MotY form the T ring in the periplasmic space, which is not found in E. coli and S. typhimurium (Terashima et al. Reference Terashima, Fukuoka, Yakushi, Kojima and Homma2006), further supporting a role in stabilising sodium stators in a sodium host.

Table 1.

Functional chimeric flagellar motors containing H⁺- and Na⁺-driven components

Components of Na⁺-driven motors are italicised, H⁺-driven motors in roman. Parentheses indicate experimental uncertainty in the coupling ion or the requirement for MotXY. Components for which the coupling ion in the chimera is different from that in the original motor are shown bold and highlighted by boxes. No single component uniquely determines the coupling ion.

Original motor H⁺-driven: Rs, R. sphaeroides; Ec, E. coli; A, MotA; B, MotB.

Original motor Na⁺-driven: Va, V. alginolyticus; Vc, V. cholerae; A, PomA; B, PomB; XY, MotX and MotY.

G, FliG; N, N terminus; C, C-terminus.

1: Asai et al. (Reference Asai, Kawagishi, Sockett and Homma1999); 2, 4: Asai et al. (Reference Asai, Kawagishi, Sockett and Homma2000); 3, 5–7: Asai et al. (Reference Asai, Yakushi, Kawagishi and Homma2003); 8, 9, 11, 12: Gosnik & Hase (Reference Gosink and Hase2000); 10, 13: Yorimitsu et al. (Reference Yorimitsu, Mimaki, Yakushi and Homma2003).

^a PomA/PotB^E.

A particularly useful chimeric motor uses stators PomA and PotB (Table 1, line 6; PotB is a fusion protein between the periplasmic C-terminal domain of E. coli MotB and the membrane-spanning N-terminal domain of PomB from V. aliginolyticus) to form a Na⁺-driven motor in E. coli (Asai et al. Reference Asai, Yakushi, Kawagishi and Homma2003). Because Na⁺ concentration is less important than pH for maintaining the functionality of proteins and the SMF is not central to the metabolism of E. coli, the SMF can be controlled over a wide range without damage to the cells or motors. This has allowed observation of the fundamental stepping motion of the motor at low SMF and measurement of the dependence of motor rotation upon each component of the SMF, as detailed below.

Motor dependence upon IMF

The IMFs that drive bacterial flagellar motors are significantly different from ATP hydrolysis in a number of ways. They require a membrane and are inherently vectorial in nature – the rotor is oriented in the membrane and ions travel through the motor in a particular direction. This has led to the proposal of several models of the motor mechanism that are based on geometric constraints with no real equivalent in ATP-driven motors (Khan & Berg, Reference Khan and Berg1983; Läuger, Reference Läuger1988; Meister et al. Reference Meister, Caplan and Berg1989; Berry, Reference Berry1993, Reference Berry2000). Ions are smaller and more symmetric than ATP, which may explain the very high stator turnover speeds and correspondingly high power output of the flagellar motor (Ryu et al. Reference Ryu, Berry and Berg2000). The quantum of free energy, corresponding to one ion crossing the membrane, is smaller than the free energy of hydrolysis of ATP (~6 versus ~20 k _BT). Furthermore the enthalpic contribution is proportional to membrane voltage, which is continuously variable and, in principle, reversible. Thus, experiments to understand the effects of IMF on flagellar rotation are likely to lead to different types of conclusion than the equivalent experiments on ATP motors.

While appealing in principle, voltage clamp techniques developed for single-ion channel recordings (Sakmann & Neher, Reference Sakmann and Neher1995) are not practical for the flagellar motor. The estimated maximum current through the flagellar motor is on the order of ~0·3 pA, an order of magnitude smaller than a typical single-channel current. Combined with difficulties in obtaining a tight electrical connection between an external electrode and the cell interior that result from the small size of bacteria, their cell wall and the outer membrane in gram-negative species such as E. coli, this has so far ruled out the direct measurement of ion fluxes through single flagellar motors. The only measurement of ion flux was based on shifts in the rate of pH change of a weakly buffered dense suspension of swimming Streptococcus when motors were stopped by cross-linking their filaments with anti-filament antibody (Meister et al. Reference Meister, Lowe and Berg1987). The estimated flux was around 1200 H⁺ ions per revolution per motor over a speed range of ~20–60 Hz (1200 ions per revolution at the fastest motor speed ever measured, 1700 Hz in the Na⁺-driven motor of V. alginolyticus, corresponds to ~0·3 pA). Direct control of the membrane voltage at the flagellar motor by voltage clamp was achieved in 1995 by pulling filamentous E. coli cells (grown with the antibiotic cephalexin to prevent cell division) into custom-made micropipettes containing the proton ionophore gramicidin S to establish electrical contact between the pipette and the cell interior (Fig. 3a, left; Fung & Berg, Reference Fung and Berg1995). Motor rotation was monitored by video microscopy of dead cells attached to motors, a viscous load equivalent to tethered cells. Speed was proportional to the applied voltage up to −150 mV (Fig. 3a, right), consistent with earlier measurements of the speed of tethered gram-positive bacteria, Streptococcus and Bacillus, energised by a K⁺ diffusion potential (Fig. 3b; Manson et al. Reference Manson, Tedesco and Berg1980; Khan et al. Reference Khan, Meister and Berg1985; Meister & Berg, Reference Meister and Berg1987). Tethered cell experiments using diffusion potentials and variations in the concentration of driving ions also demonstrated that the electrical and chemical components of the IMF are equivalent at high load in H⁺-driven flagellar motors (Fig. 3b; Manson et al. Reference Manson, Tedesco and Berg1980).

Fig. 3.

Torque versus IMF. (a) Left: Schematic of a voltage clamp method using filamentous E. coli cells held in custom-made micropipettes. The part of the membrane inside the pipette (indicated by the dashed line) is made permeable using the ionophore gramicidin S. Motor speed was monitored by video microscopy of a dead cell attached to the motor. Right: Motor speed is proportional to membrane voltage (=PMF) between 0 and −150 mV. (b) Left: Membrane voltages in Streptococcus can be controlled by a K⁺ diffusion potential in the presence of valinomycin. Right: The speed of tethered Streptococcus cells is proportional to PMF, and membrane voltage is equivalent to pH gradient under these conditions. (c) Left: PMF can be varied slowly from −150 mV down to 0 by adding small concentrations of carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) or sodium azide. Right: Using the result of (a), the speed of a tethered E. coli motor (lower axis) was used as a proxy for PMF (upper axis, absolute value shown). The speed of a second motor on the same cell, attached to a sub-micron bead, was found to be proportional to PMF. (d) Left: Both components of SMF in E. coli can be varied using external pH and Na⁺ concentration and quantified using fluorescence methods. Right: The speed of single-stator chimeric motors driving small loads is proportional to SMF at a given external Na⁺ concentration, but motors spin faster in high Na⁺ even at the same SMF. Data adapted from (a) Fung & Berg (Reference Fung and Berg1995), (b) Manson et al. (Reference Manson, Tedesco and Berg1980), (c) Gabel & Berg (Reference Gabel and Berg2003) and (d) Lo et al. (Reference Lo, Leake, Pilizota and Berry2007).

More recent measurements of the dependence of motor rotation on IMF have relied upon measuring the IMF in individual bacteria in response to different perturbations, rather than attempting to achieve a specific IMF using diffusion potentials or voltage clamp. Gabel & Berg (Reference Gabel and Berg2003) exploited the previously measured proportionality between PMF and tethered cell rotation rate, using the speed of a tethered E. coli cell to indicate the PMF in response to perturbation by sodium azide or carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone, while simultaneously recording the speed of a 0·4-μm bead attached to another motor of the same cell (Fig. 3c). The speeds of the two motors were proportional, thus the speed of the fast motor at low load is also proportional to PMF. Lo et al. (Reference Lo, Leake and Berry2006, Reference Lo, Leake, Pilizota and Berry2007) developed fluorescence methods to measure both components of the SMF in single E. coli cells expressing a Na⁺-driven chimeric flagellar motor. They found that the membrane voltage (V _m) and Na⁺ concentration gradient (ΔpNa) could be independently controlled over the ranges V _m=−140 to −85 mV and ΔpNa=−50 to 40 mV by variation of pH and external Na⁺ concentration (Fig. 3d). Chimeric motor speed at high load (1-μm beads) was proportional to SMF, and V _m and ΔpNa were equivalent as previously shown for PMF in tethered cells. At a low load (0·36-μm beads), V _m and ΔpNa were not equivalent. For a given external sodium concentration, speed was proportional to SMF, but the constant of proportionality was larger with higher Na⁺ concentration and correspondingly larger relative contribution of ΔpNa to the SMF (Fig. 3d, right). A similar result was obtained for the Na⁺-driven motor of V. alginolyticus; reduction of sodium concentration from 50 to 3 mm reduced the speed at low load approximately threefold, but the plateau torque, presumably proportional to SMF, only approximately twofold (Sowa et al. Reference Sowa, Hotta, Homma and Ishijima2003). The SMF variation at a given sodium concentration in the E. coli experiment is mostly in V _m, with only a small change in ΔpNa. If the chimeric and wild-type motors are the same, this would imply that PMF changes in the experiments of Gabel & Berg (Reference Gabel and Berg2003) were also dominated by changes in V _m. One possible interpretation of these results is that the ion binding is rate-limiting at low load. In the near future, a systematic study of the effects of V _m, ΔpNa and site-specific mutations on the torque–speed relationship of the chimeric motor may reveal the kinetic details of the motor mechanism (Inoue et al. Reference Inoue, Lo, Fukuoka, Takahashi, Sowa, Pilizota, Wadhams, Homma, Berry and Ishijima2008).

Torque versus speed

Fitting the torque–speed relationship under a range of conditions is an important test of models of the mechanochemical cycle of the flagellar motor (Oosawa & Hayashi, Reference Oosawa and Hayashi1986; Läuger, Reference Läuger1988; Berry, Reference Berry1993; Elston & Oster, Reference Elston and Oster1997; Berry & Berg, Reference Berry and Berg1999; Walz & Caplan, Reference Walz and Caplan2000; Xing et al. Reference Xing, Bai, Berry and Oster2006). The speed can be varied either by changing the viscous load or by applying external torque. The latter is technically challenging, but offers the ability to measure the torque generated by the motor when forced to rotate backwards or forwards faster than its zero-load speed. Figure 4 summarises measurements of the torque–speed relationship of flagellar motors from different species using different methods. Early measurements that varied the viscosity with tethered Streptococcus cells showed that the torque was approximately constant at speeds up to about 10 Hz (Manson et al. Reference Manson, Tedesco and Berg1980) and estimated a value of ~2700 pN nm (Lowe et al. Reference Lowe, Meister and Berg1987). The latter authors also measured the average rotation speed of flagellar bundles, detectable as broad peaks in the frequency spectrum of fluctuations in light intensity scattered by populations of swimming Streptococcus cells (Lowe et al. Reference Lowe, Meister and Berg1987). Comparing these results to the torque in tethered cells gave a linear torque–speed relationship for the Streptococcus motor (Fig. 4, diamonds). More recent experiments using polystyrene beads show a different torque–speed curve for the motors of E. coli (Chen & Berg, Reference Chen and Berg2000b), V. alginolyticus (Sowa et al. Reference Sowa, Hotta, Homma and Ishijima2003) and the sodium-driven E. coli chimera (Inoue et al. Reference Inoue, Lo, Fukuoka, Takahashi, Sowa, Pilizota, Wadhams, Homma, Berry and Ishijima2008). There is a plateau of nearly constant torque up to a ‘knee’ speed of several 100 Hz, then a sharp transition to a regime where torque falls linearly towards the zero-torque speed (Fig. 4, circles, triangles). The V. alginolyticus experiment varied speed by using different sizes of bead and undecorated filaments for the fastest data point, creating some uncertainty in the estimates of the relative viscous drag coefficients – in particular, due to unknown filaments lengths. The measurements in E. coli avoid this uncertainty by varying the viscosity between successive speed measurements with the same bead and motor, using the smallest beads for which a reliable speed signal can be obtained.

Fig. 4.

Torque versus speed. (a–d) Methods of measuring torque–speed relationships. (a) Microscopy of swimming cells. (b) Tethered cells. (c) Beads attached to flagella. (d) Electrorotation of tethered cells: microelectrodes generate a megahertz rotating electric field at the cell that applies an external torque (black arrow), which adds to the motor torque (grey arrow). (e) Torque–speed relationships for flagellar motors of various species measured using various methods. Except where indicated, all measurements were made at room temperature. Symbols in (a–d) indicate the methods used to obtain the data plotted with the same symbols in (e). For more details, see references indicated in the legend. The E. coli experiments using electrorotation (grey circles) and beads (black circles) did not report absolute torques – these curves have been scaled to a stall torque of 1260 pN nm (Reid et al. Reference Reid, Leake, Chandler, Lo, Armitage and Berry2006).

These results confirmed the torque–speed relationship measured previously by using electrorotation to apply external torque to tethered E. coli cells (Berg & Turner, Reference Berg and Turner1993; Washizu et al. Reference Washizu, Kurahashi, Iochi, Kurosawa, Aizawa, Kudo, Magariyama and Hotani1993; Berry et al. Reference Berry, Turner and Berg1995; Berry & Berg, Reference Berry and Berg1996, Reference Berry and Berg1999). In this method, a rotating electric field (megahertz) polarises the cell body and torque is exerted on the cell due to a phase lag between the field and induced dipole moment (Fig. 4d). Using microelectrodes and substantial voltages, it was possible to spin the cell body in both directions at speeds up to ~1 kHz. The electrorotation measurements extend the plateau region to backwards speeds of about −100 Hz and the high-speed linear region forwards to ~400 Hz, at which point, the motor resists rotation with a torque of similar magnitude to the plateau torque (Fig. 4, large grey circles). The absolute magnitude of torque generated by the E. coli motor was not estimated in the above experiments, but has subsequently been determined to be 1260±190 pN nm using measurements with polystyrene beads of diameter 1 μm, for which the uncertainty introduced by unknown filament lengths is negligible (Reid et al. Reference Reid, Leake, Chandler, Lo, Armitage and Berry2006). This value is similar to early estimates of 1300±50 pN nm using tethered cells (Meister & Berg, Reference Meister and Berg1987; Blair & Berg, Reference Blair and Berg1988). Early electrorotation experiments indicated a ratchet-like mechanism in which considerably more torque is needed to force the motor backwards than to stop it rotating forwards (Berg & Turner, Reference Berg and Turner1993), but later work showed this to be an artefact of the method (Berry et al. Reference Berry, Turner and Berg1995; Berry & Berg, Reference Berry and Berg1996, Reference Berry and Berg1999). This result was confirmed by using an optical trap (Ashkin et al. Reference Ashkin, Dziedzic and Yamane1987) to demonstrate that the motor torque is similar when rotating very slowly in either direction (Berry & Berg, Reference Berry and Berg1997). The high estimate of torque in this experiment (Fig. 4, open circle) contradicts the estimate using 1-μm beads and is probably unreliable because of systematic errors in the estimation of the force exerted by the trap, which was calibrated without the nearby cell body present in the torque measurement.

In the torque plateau, transitions linked to ion flux are not rate-limiting; speed is limited mechanically by the load on the motor. The continuity of torque on either side of stall indicates that there is no irreversible step in the mechanochemical cycle. Faster than the ‘knee’, transitions in the motor are rate-limiting, and this is the regime where more data are needed to understand the nature of these transitions. This interpretation is supported by the observations that motor speed in the high-speed regime depends on factors that affect absolute transition rates: temperature (Berg & Turner, Reference Berg and Turner1993), hydrogen isotope (Chen & Berg, Reference Chen and Berg2000a) and which component of the SMF is dominant (Sowa et al. Reference Sowa, Hotta, Homma and Ishijima2003; Lo et al. Reference Lo, Leake, Pilizota and Berry2007), whereas motor speed in the plateau depends only on the IMF, a thermodynamic quantity (Lo et al. Reference Lo, Leake, Pilizota and Berry2007).

It remains to be seen whether the torque–speed relationships of the E. coli and V. alginolyticus motors are common to all flagellar motors. The Streptococcus result would be equivalent if the absolute torque in tethered cells were an overestimate of the true torque. The only other species to date in which the torque–speed relationship has been measured is Caulobacter crescentus, where motor torque and speed were inferred from high-speed videos of crescent-shaped free-swimming cells in media of different viscosity (Fig. 4, squares) (Li & Tang, Reference Li and Tang2006). These results showed a plateau of low torque extending up to the highest speed measured, ~300 hz, for motors in cells swimming in aqueous buffer. Torque–speed measurements of the flagellar motors of various species, of chimeras and mutants and with a range of IMFs are expected to offer further insight in the near future.

Interactions between rotor and stator

The C ring (containing FliG, FliM and FliN) is also known as the switch complex and is the key component of the rotor for torque generation and switching (Yamaguchi et al. Reference Yamaguchi, Aizawa, Kihara, Isomura, Jones and Macnab1986a, Reference Yamaguchi, Fujita, Ishihara, Aizawa and Macnabb). FliG interacts with MotA to generate torque (Garza et al. Reference Garza, Harris-Haller, Stoebner and Manson1995; Lloyd et al. Reference Lloyd, Tang, Wang, Billings and Blair1996; Zhou et al. Reference Zhou, Lloyd and Blair1998). Stator complexes anchor to the peptidoglycan cell wall and span the cytoplasmic membrane, forming ion channels (Blair & Berg, Reference Blair and Berg1990; De Mot & Vanderleyden, Reference De Mot and Vanderleyden1994; Sato & Homma, Reference Sato and Homma2000). Freeze fracture cryo-EM shows that they are located in rings at the periphery of the rotor in Aquaspirillum serpens, Bacillus species, E. coli and Streptococcus (Fig. 5a), containing between 10 and 16 particles depending on the species and the individual motor (Coulton & Murray, Reference Coulton and Murray1978; Khan et al. Reference Khan, Dapice and Reese1988, Reference Khan, Ivey and Krulwich1992). Currently, there are no atomic-level structures of any part of the stator complexes. However, extensive studies using biochemical cross-linking and site-directed mutagenesis have identified their topology, stoichiometry and likely active regions. Mot/PomA and Mot/PomB have four and one membrane-spanning α-helices and large cytoplasmic and periplasmic domains, respectively (Fig. 5b; Dean et al. Reference Dean, Macnab, Stader, Matsumura and Burks1984; Chun & Parkinson, Reference Chun and Parkinson1988; De Mot & Vanderleyden, Reference De Mot and Vanderleyden1994). The C-terminal periplasmic domain of MotB contains an essential peptidoglycan-binding motif. The cytoplasmic domain of MotA contains two charged residues that interact with five charged residues in the C-terminal domain of FliG to generate torque (Lloyd & Blair, Reference Lloyd and Blair1997; Zhou & Blair, Reference Zhou and Blair1997; Zhou et al. Reference Zhou, Lloyd and Blair1998). No single mutation in these residues completely abolishes torque-generation, and charge-reversing mutations in both proteins can compensate each other, indicating an electrostatic interaction at an interface between the two proteins. PomA and FliG of the Na⁺-driven flagellar motor of V. alginolyticus show a similar pattern (Yakushi et al. Reference Yakushi, Yang, Fukuoka, Homma and Blair2006), but with differences in which conserved charged residues are most important for function (Yorimitsu et al. Reference Yorimitsu, Sowa, Ishijima, Yakushi and Homma2002, Reference Yorimitsu, Mimaki, Yakushi and Homma2003). The stoichiometry of stator complexes deduced from targeted disulphide cross-linking studies and chromatography appears to be A₄B₂ (Sato & Homma, Reference Sato and Homma2000; Braun et al. Reference Braun, Al-Mawsawi, Kojima and Blair2004; Kojima & Blair, Reference Kojima and Blair2004b), with the membrane-spanning helices of MotA subunits surrounding a suspected proton binding site at residue Asp32 (in E. coli) of MotB (Fig. 5c; Sharp et al. Reference Sharp, Zhou and Blair1995a, Reference Sharp, Zhou and Blairb). This is the only conserved charged residue in MotA or MotB that is absolutely essential for function, and it is postulated that each stator contains two ion channels, each containing one MotB-Asp32 residue (Braun & Blair, Reference Braun and Blair2001). Different patterns of protein digestion indicate a conformational change in MotA between wild-type stators and stators containing the mutation MotB-Asp32–Asn32, which mimics the protonation of Asp32 (Braun et al. Reference Braun, Poulson, Gully, Empey, Van Way, Putnam and Blair1999; Kojima & Blair, Reference Kojima and Blair2001). Mutations in the conserved proline residues P173 and P222 in E. coli MotA severely impair motor function (Braun et al. Reference Braun, Poulson, Gully, Empey, Van Way, Putnam and Blair1999). Thus, a putative mechanism for the motor is that proton flux coordinates conformational changes in MotA via MotB-Asp32 and that these conformational changes involve motions about the MotA proline residues that lead to a cyclic interaction with FliG that generates torque. Asp24 of PomB in V. alginolyticus is equivalent to Asp32 of MotB in E. coli, but correlated conformational change of PomA has not been tested.

Fig. 5.

Stator organisation, topology, interactions with rotor and proposed membrane organisation. (a) Freeze fracture EM image of a ring of stators surrounding a hole left by the MS ring in a Streptococcus motor. Fifteen stators can be counted in this motor. Depending on species, the number of stators found by this method varies between 10 and 16. Scale bar=50 nm. (b) Stator topology and interaction between rotor and stator in E. coli. MotA has four transmembrane α-helices and a large cytoplasmic domain between the second and third transmembrane regions. This cytoplasmic domain contains important charged residues that interact with charged residues of FliG. MotB has a large periplasmic domain containing a peptidoglycan binding domain (PBD). PG, peptidoglycan cell wall; CM, cytoplasmic membrane. (c) Proposed arrangement of membrane domains of MotA and MotB, determined by mutational analysis. In this model, ions pass through a channel (shaded) formed by MotB and the third and fourth transmembrane helices of MotA. Reprinted from (a) Khan et al. (Reference Khan, Dapice and Reese1988) and (c) Blair (Reference Blair2003).

Independent torque generating units

When functional Mot proteins are expressed in a mot mutant strain, motor speed increases in discrete increments, a process known as ‘resurrection’. This demonstrates that torque is generated by independent stator units. Early work using tethered E. coli cells showed a maximum of eight speed increments (Block & Berg, Reference Block and Berg1984; Blair & Berg, Reference Blair and Berg1988), at odds with the number of stator particles seen in EM images (10–12) (Khan et al. Reference Khan, Dapice and Reese1988). This discrepancy has been removed by a recent resurrection of the resurrection experiment, but using 1-μm beads instead of tethered cells (Fig. 6a; Reid et al. Reference Reid, Leake, Chandler, Lo, Armitage and Berry2006). Up to 11 or 12 speed increments were seen, consistent with the EM images. Similar results were obtained for the Na⁺-driven chimera in E. coli (Reid et al. Reference Reid, Leake, Chandler, Lo, Armitage and Berry2006). Up to nine stepwise decreases in the speed of the Na⁺-driven motor of an alkalophilic Bacillus, upon activation of an irreversible Na⁺-channel inhibitor by ultraviolet light, showed that these motors also contain independent torque generators (Muramoto et al. Reference Muramoto, Sugiyama, Cragoe and Imae1994).

Fig. 6.

Independent torque-generating units in E. coli. Left: Speed versus time following ‘resurrection’ of motors with defective stator proteins by induced expression of functional stator proteins. Right: Speed versus number of stators. (a) Motors labelled with 1-μm beads show up to 11 or 12 stators. The speed per stator decreases slightly at high stator number. (b) Motors labelled with 0·3-μm beads show a large decrease in speed per stator as stator number increases. (c) Motors labelled with 60-nm gold beads attached to hooks show sudden jumps to ~300 Hz without further speed increases, despite the expectation that induced stator protein expression leads to further increase in stator numbers as in (a) and (b). Black lines in (a) show fits using a step-finding algorithm. Data adapted from (a) Reid et al. (Reference Reid, Leake, Chandler, Lo, Armitage and Berry2006), (b) Ryu et al. (Reference Ryu, Berry and Berg2000) and (c) Yuan & Berg (Reference Yuan and Berg2008).

Reid et al. (Reference Reid, Leake, Chandler, Lo, Armitage and Berry2006) also reported transient speed changes in normally expressed motors, indicating the possibility that stators are not permanent but rather in a process of constant turnover. These results have been confirmed by total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy of green fluorescent protein GFP-labelled MotB (GFP-MotB) at the single-molecule level in spinning motors in live cells (Fig. 7; Leake et al. Reference Leake, Chandler, Wadhams, Bai, Berry and Armitage2006). By comparing the size of stepwise decreases in the fluorescence intensity of single motors, attributable to the photobleaching of single GFP molecules, to the initial intensity of the same motor, Leake et al. (Reference Leake, Chandler, Wadhams, Bai, Berry and Armitage2006) counted an average of 22 GFP-MotB molecules per cell. This is consistent with 11 stator complexes each with A₄B₂ stoichiometry, as predicted biochemically. Furthermore, a mobile pool of ~200 GFP-MotB molecules was seen in the cell membrane, and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching showed that these exchange with GFP-MotB in the motor on a timescale of minutes – confirming that stator units are dynamic rather than static. This may allow the replacement of damaged stators or it may be a mechanism for regulating motility in response to environmental conditions. Ion-channel activity of the free stators (Blair & Berg, Reference Blair and Berg1990; Sato & Homma, Reference Sato and Homma2000) is very low, as expected if flux is tightly coupled to motor rotation. One model for how this is achieved postulates that the peptidoglycan binding domain of MotB plugs the channels in stators until they assemble at the motor (Hosking et al. Reference Hosking, Vogt, Bakker and Manson2006).

Fig. 7.

Fluorescence observation of GFP-tagged MotB in live E. coli cells. Motors appear as bright spots in total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (inset). Fluorescence loss in photobleaching (FLIP) and recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) show that MotB exchanges between the motor and a mobile pool in the membrane on a timescale of minutes. The graph shows the average intensity in a region of interest (ROI) surrounding a motor versus time after localised photobleaching of either a remote part of the cell (FLIP) or the motor itself (FRAP). Data adapted from Leake et al. (Reference Leake, Chandler, Wadhams, Bai, Berry and Armitage2006).

Stator turnover explains the observation that motors resurrect after the IMF is transiently removed, for example by removing either the membrane voltage in wild-type E. coli (Fung & Berg, Reference Fung and Berg1995) or external Na⁺ with the chimeric E. coli motor (Sowa et al. Reference Sowa, Rowe, Leake, Yakushi, Homma, Ishijima and Berry2005). Fluorescence microscopy of GFP-labelled PomA or PomB in V. alginolyticus shows that removal of external Na⁺ causes stators to leave the motor, further evidence for dynamic turnover (M. Homma, personal communication). Presumably, the balance between on- and off-rates for stators binding the motor is dependent upon the IMF. It is not known what else affects these rates, but one possibility is that normal motor rotation itself is the determining factor. This might explain the failure to observe more than eight resurrection steps in tethered cells (reproduced by Reid et al. Reference Reid, Leake, Chandler, Lo, Armitage and Berry2006) and stepwise decreases in the torque generated by cells stalled for extended periods by electrorotation (R. Berry, personal communication).

Motor speed is proportional to stator number in resurrection experiments with tethered cells and with 1-μm beads and chimeric motors or wild-type motors at low stator number (Reid et al. Reference Reid, Leake, Chandler, Lo, Armitage and Berry2006; Fig. 6a). The slight reduction in speed per stator with the wild-type at high stator number (Fig. 6a) may be attributable to steric interference between stators or possibly to local depletion of H⁺. Resurrection experiments with smaller beads show a marked non-linearity even at low stator number (Ryu et al. Reference Ryu, Berry and Berg2000; Fig. 6b). These results were used to show that torque–speed relationships for motors containing between one and five stators have a plateau and apparently the same knee speed as the wild-type motor. Ryu et al. (Reference Ryu, Berry and Berg2000) predicted that the zero-torque speed varied little or not at all with stator number, which has recently been confirmed by resurrection experiments at vanishing load (Fig. 6c; Yuan & Berg, Reference Yuan and Berg2008). Sixty-nanometer gold beads attached to the flagellar hook in a strain lacking filaments were observed using laser DF microscopy and showed sudden jumps from 0 to ~300 Hz without further speed increases, under conditions where the stator number is expected to increase as in a normal resurrection experiment. The independence of zero-torque speed on stator number is interpreted using a model in which each stator has a high duty ratio, and there is a rate-limiting step in the mechanochemical cycle that cannot be speeded up by the torque exerted by other stators through the common rotor. A similar result has been obtained for the sodium-driven chimeric motor in E. coli (Inoue et al. Reference Inoue, Lo, Fukuoka, Takahashi, Sowa, Pilizota, Wadhams, Homma, Berry and Ishijima2008). It is interesting to note that the drag coefficient of bacterial filaments leads to motor rotation close to the knee in swimming cells, corresponding to the maximum power output of the motor. Whether this is coincidence or natural selection is not known.

New motor structures

Atomic structures of the middle and C-terminal domains of FliG, the middle part of FliM and the C-terminal part of FliN have been resolved by X-ray crystallography (Lloyd et al. Reference Lloyd, Whitby, Blair and Hill1999; Brown et al. Reference Brown, Hill and Blair2002, Reference Brown, Mathews, Joss, Hill and Blair2005; Park et al. Reference Park, Lowder, Bilwes, Blair and Crane2006). Figure 1 (inset) shows these crystal structures and a model for where they fit into the C ring, based on a range of biochemical studies (Lowder et al. Reference Lowder, Duyvesteyn and Blair2005; Paul & Blair, Reference Paul and Blair2006; Paul et al. Reference Paul, Harmon and Blair2006; Brown et al. Reference Brown, Terrazas, Paul and Blair2007). The overall structure of the C ring in S. typhimurium has been determined by single particle reconstruction and cryo-EM of the flagellar basal body. This work has revealed an interesting symmetry mismatch within the rotor. The MS ring symmetry was first reported to be 26 (Suzuki et al. Reference Suzuki, Yonekura and Namba2004). A partly functional fusion protein between FliF and FliG in S. typhimurium is strong evidence that FliG has the same copy number as FliF, the main MS ring protein (Francis et al. Reference Francis, Irikura, Yamaguchi, Derosier and Macnab1992), presumably ~26. Early work on the C ring indicated 33- and 34-fold symmetries (Thomas et al. Reference Thomas, Morgan and Derosier1999); subsequent work extended the range to 31–38 (Young et al. Reference Young, Dang, Lai, Derosier and Khan2003), but most of FliG must be in the C ring, raising the question of how ~26 copies of FliG can form part of a ~35-fold symmetric C ring (Francis et al. Reference Francis, Sosinsky, Thomas and Derosier1994; Oosawa et al. Reference Oosawa, Ueno and Aizawa1994; Thomas et al. Reference Thomas, Morgan and Derosier1999; Suzuki et al. Reference Suzuki, Yonekura and Namba2004). The most recent reconstructions of the rotor structure (Thomas et al. Reference Thomas, Francis, Xu and Derosier2006) offer a resolution of the problem (Fig. 8a, b). The inner lobe of the C ring shares the symmetry of the MS ring (here seen to vary between 23 and 26), presumably identifying it with FliG, whereas the outer lobe of the C ring is distributed with symmetry 32–36. Thomas et al. (Reference Thomas, Francis, Xu and Derosier2006) proposed that ~26 copies of FliG are contained in the MS ring and the inner lobe of the C ring. An alternative model proposes that FliG spans both lobes of the C ring and that there are n defects in the outer lobe, each a missing FliG domain, where n is the difference between C- and MS-ring symmetries (Brown et al. Reference Brown, Terrazas, Paul and Blair2007). An illustration of this effect is shown in Fig. 8b, in which the light purple FliM subunits mark each defect. These defects are lost in the process of alignment and averaging during image reconstruction. An earlier model predicted a similar symmetry mismatch and identified n=8 with the number of stator units, postulating that the torque-generating mechanism consisted of each stator unit catalysing the propagation of a defect around the ring (Thomas et al. Reference Thomas, Morgan and Derosier1999). This model predicts that the MS and C ring rotate at different speeds, a counter-intuitive prediction that might in the future be testable by direct observation of fluorescently labelled rotor proteins. The latest structural evidence shows no correlation between variations in the C- and MS-ring symmetries (Thomas et al. Reference Thomas, Francis, Xu and Derosier2006), with the symmetry mismatch n varying between 6 and 13. However, the number of stators has also recently been shown to vary up to at least 11 (Reid et al. Reference Reid, Leake, Chandler, Lo, Armitage and Berry2006), leaving open the intriguing possibility that the symmetry mismatch may be an essential element in the torque-generating mechanism.

Fig. 8.

EM images of flagellar motors. (a) 3D reconstruction of the isolated rotor from S. typhimurium. (b) The inner lobe of the C ring has ~25-fold symmetry (arrows), the remainder of the C ring ~34-fold. Bottom: Model for symmetry mismatch. Light blue, FliG; pink, FliM; blue, tetramer of FliN. (c) 3D reconstruction of the rotor from spirochaete T. primitia in vivo. The dashed line in the left figure shows the axis of a stator. The motor contains 16 stators, each of which makes one link to the P collar and three to the rotor (right). The rotor is larger than that of S. typhimurium (a, c, Scale bars=50 nm). Reprinted from (a) DeRosier (Reference Derosier2006), (b) Thomas et al. (Reference Thomas, Francis, Xu and Derosier2006) and Brown et al. (Reference Brown, Terrazas, Paul and Blair2007) and (c) Murphy et al. (Reference Murphy, Leadbetter and Jensen2006).

A recent complete EM structure in situ of the flagellar motor of the spirochaete Treponema primitia at 7-nm resolution shows 16 stators in an interconnected ring around the rotor, with most of the mass in the cytoplasmic membrane and periplasm (Fig. 8c; Murphy et al. Reference Murphy, Leadbetter and Jensen2006). Each stator connects to the P collar and also in three places to the rotor. Only one of the rotor connections is to the part of the C ring where FliG is thought to be located in the rotor of S. typhimurium (Thomas et al. Reference Thomas, Francis, Xu and Derosier2006). The rotors of these two species are slightly different in shape and size, and it remains to be seen whether the number and arrangement of their stators is also different.

Stepping rotation

An important recent breakthrough towards understanding the mechanism of flagellar rotation at the microscopic level has been direct observation of the elementary process, i.e. stepping rotation (Sowa et al. Reference Sowa, Rowe, Leake, Yakushi, Homma, Ishijima and Berry2005), in a fashion comparable to recent experiments on ATP-driven molecular motors (Svoboda et al. Reference Svoboda, Schmidt, Schnapp and Block1993; Yasuda et al. Reference Yasuda, Noji, Kinosita and Yoshida1998; Kitamura et al. Reference Kitamura, Tokunaga, Iwane and Yanagida1999; Mehta et al. Reference Mehta, Rock, Rief, Spudich, Mooseker and Cheney1999; Yasuda et al. Reference Yasuda, Noji, Yoshida, Kinosita and Itoh2001). The quest to observe stepping of the bacterial flagellar motor dates back almost to the first confirmation that the motor actually rotates (Berg, Reference Berg, Goldman, Pollard and Rosenbaum1976). At that time, despite careful experiments, stepping motion could not be found. Estimates of the resolution of the experiments predicted that if there were steps, there must be more than 10 per revolution. Analysis of speed fluctuations in tethered cells predicted ~50 steps per revolution per stator and ~400 steps per revolution in a wild-type motor, assuming Poisson stepping (Samuel & Berg, Reference Samuel and Berg1995, Reference Samuel and Berg1996), setting a difficult technical challenge. As well as the small expected step size and multiple parallel torque generators, the hook acts as a filter smoothing out any steps in the rotation of a bead attached to the filament. The hook stiffness was determined as 400 pN nm rad⁻¹ by measuring relaxation times after applying external torque to tethered cells using optical tweezers (Block et al. Reference Block, Blair and Berg1989). This means that even a single stator generating ~150 pN nm (Reid et al. Reference Reid, Leake, Chandler, Lo, Armitage and Berry2006) twists the hook 0·35 radians, or 20°. If the motor takes a step, the subsequent motion of the bead will be damped with a relaxation time equal to the viscous drag coefficient divided by the spring constant of the hook. The time between steps must be larger than the relaxation time if they are to be detected. Using smaller beads reduces the drag coefficient and thus the relaxation time, but also leads to faster rotation of the motor and thus less time per step.

These problems were overcome by Sowa et al. in 2005 by using small beads attached to Na⁺-driven chimeric motors in E. coli (Asai et al. Reference Asai, Yakushi, Kawagishi and Homma2003). Stators were expressed at low levels and the SMF was reduced by lowering external sodium concentration. This achieved very slow rotation (~10 Hz or lower) combined with fast bead response, although the actual SMF was unknown and the rotation rate was not stable because of the extremely low SMF. Rotation was detected by tracking either 0·5-μm beads using back-focal plane interferometry or 0·2-μm fluorescent beads using a high-speed electron multiplying CCD camera (Fig. 9a). Steps were resolved in single-stator motors at speeds lower than ~10 Hz (Fig. 9b). The distribution of step sizes was fitted by a multiple Gaussian to allow for the possibility that the step-finding algorithm occasionally combines two adjacent steps into a double-size step (Fig. 9c). The most probable step size of 13·7° corresponds to 26 steps per revolution (360°/13·7°=26·3). Histograms of the dwelling angle of beads during several revolutions showed a 26-fold periodicity (Fig. 9d), confirming the step size and showing that the 26 stopping angles are the same in successive revolutions. Although average speeds varied from cell to cell because of uncontrolled low SMF, the step size was the same for all speeds.

Fig. 9.

Steps in slow flagellar rotation. (a) Reducing SMF and motor speed of a chimeric Na⁺-driven flagellar motor in E. coli by (upper) lowering external Na⁺ concentration (from 5 to 0·1 mm and back, black arrows) and (lower) photodamage. The speed doublings marked by red arrows indicate a change from one to two stators. (b) Stepping rotation of flagellar motors with a range of average speeds depending on different SMF. Insets show the positions of beads attached to flagellar filaments, scales in nanometers. Horizontal and radial lines indicate (1/26 revolution). (c) Step size distribution (black) with multiple Gaussian fit (red). The peak of forwards steps is 13·7°, indicating 26 steps per revolution. An example of steps identified by a step-finding algorithm is shown (inset). (d) Plot of angle against time during three revolutions, a histogram of dwell angles for the same revolutions and the power spectrum of that histogram. The peak at 26 per revolution corresponds to a step size of 13·8° and shows that the motor stops at the same angles on successive revolutions. Speeds shown in blue were measured using optical interferometry, those in black using high-speed fluorescence microscopy (insets in (a)). Data adapted from Sowa et al. (Reference Sowa, Rowe, Leake, Yakushi, Homma, Ishijima and Berry2005).

Stepping motion in ATP-driven molecular motors reflects both the discrete molecular nature of the fuel and the periodicity of the track along which the motor runs (Svoboda et al. Reference Svoboda, Schmidt, Schnapp and Block1993; Yasuda et al. Reference Yasuda, Noji, Kinosita and Yoshida1998). Twenty-six steps per revolution is consistent with the periodicity of the ring of FliG, the track on the rotor where rotational torque is believed to be generated (Suzuki et al. Reference Suzuki, Yonekura and Namba2004; Thomas et al. Reference Thomas, Francis, Xu and Derosier2006). Whether each step corresponds to a single-ion transit is not clear. However, previous data indicate that single ions in fully energised wild-type motors cannot drive steps as large as 13·7°. If ~10 torque-generating units pass ~1200 ions per revolution independently, then one ion in one unit should step about 3°, assuming tight coupling (Meister et al. Reference Meister, Lowe and Berg1987). Energy conservation sets an upper bound to the angle coupled to one ion transit, equal to (free energy per ion)/(average torque per unit). Taking a PMF of about −150 mV and a torque, driving a 1-μm bead, of ~150 pN nm per unit (Gabel & Berg, Reference Gabel and Berg2003; Reid et al. Reference Reid, Leake, Chandler, Lo, Armitage and Berry2006), gives an upper bound of ~10° per ion, which closely corresponds to the ~35-fold periodicity of the C ring. A similar calculation for the chimeric motor gives a similar result (Lo et al. Reference Lo, Leake, Pilizota and Berry2007). Either the coupling ratio is different at low SMF and low load or more than one ion (but less than two) is needed per step. Thus, the stepping results, like the new rotor structures, raise interesting unanswered questions about the roles of the different rings in the mechanism of torque generation. Interestingly, backward steps were common, particularly at the lowest speeds (Fig. 9b, c) and appeared to be slightly smaller than forward steps. Recent theoretical work indicates that careful statistical analysis of forward and backward steps can reveal the free-energy change driving a step and the details of substeps in the mechanochemical cycle (Linden & Wallin, Reference Linden and Wallin2007). What is needed is large quantities of stepping data under well-controlled conditions of known SMF (Lo et al. Reference Lo, Leake and Berry2006, Reference Lo, Leake, Pilizota and Berry2007). But at least now, after 30 years, it is possible to contemplate experiments on the elementary steps of bacterial flagellar motors at a single molecule level.

Models of the mechanism

Many models have been proposed for the mechanism of the bacterial flagellar motor and are summarised elsewhere (Berg & Turner, Reference Berg and Turner1993; Caplan & Kara-Ivanov, Reference Caplan and Kara-Ivanov1993; Berry, Reference Berry2000). The better-studied models, those that have been formulated within a mathematical framework that provides quantitative predictions for comparison with data, can be divided into three categories: ion turbines, ion turnstiles and binding with conformational change. In an ion turbine model, the path of ions across the membrane is formed partly by elements in the stator and partly by elements in the rotor, and these elements are arranged in lines that are tilted with respect to each other. The ‘elements’ can be half-binding sites on rotor and stator that need to be aligned to bind a permeant ion (Läuger, Reference Läuger1977) or ion channels in the stator that interact with tilted lines of charge on the rotor by long-range electrostatic interactions (Berry, Reference Berry1993; Elston & Oster, Reference Elston and Oster1997; Walz & Caplan, Reference Walz and Caplan2000). The charged residues on the surface of FliG that are involved in torque generation could in principle be arranged in such a way as to provide the electrostatic interactions that are proposed in the latter models. In a turnstile model, ions are deposited onto the rotor from outside the cell by one type of stator channel and can only complete a transit if the rotor rotates, carrying them to a second type of stator channel that connects to the cell interior (Khan & Berg, Reference Khan and Berg1983; Meister et al. Reference Meister, Caplan and Berg1989). This type of model is believed to describe well the mechanism of F_O-ATPase, with an essential conserved residue on the c-subunit providing a probable binding site for ions halfway across the membrane (Vik & Antonio, Reference Vik and Antonio1994; Elston et al. Reference Elston, Wang and Oster1998). However, the lack of an equivalent essential residue in the flagellar motor is evidence against this type of model. In a conformational change model, ion transit through a stator is coupled to a cycle of conformational changes of the stator, which exerts torque on the rotor, either by long-range electrostatic or short-range steric interactions (Läuger, Reference Läuger1988). This type of mechanism is believed to describe the ATP-driven molecular motors actin–myosin and F₁-ATPase. Conformational changes in MotA linked to the proposed ion-binding site in MotB provide indirect evidence for this type of model in the flagellar motor (Kojima & Blair, Reference Kojima and Blair2001). The most recent detailed study of a flagellar motor model, and the only one to date to successfully reproduce the knee in the torque–speed relationship, falls into the conformational change category (Xing et al. Reference Xing, Bai, Berry and Oster2006).