Introduction
Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is a multipurpose crop that underpins livelihoods, food security and national economies throughout the tropics. Globally, coconut production is predominantly carried out by smallholder farmers, with smallholdings accounting for an estimated 96% of world coconut production, although larger-scale plantations also contribute to production in some regions. Its fruits, oil, fibre, timber and other co-products provide important sources of food, income and employment for millions of farming households, particularly across Asia and the Pacific, while coconut palms also provide valuable ecosystem services, including coastal protection and carbon sequestration. However, climate change, emerging pests and diseases and evolving market demands increasingly threaten coconut productivity and erode genetic diversity, highlighting the urgent need for effective conservation and sustainable utilization of coconut genetic resources (Bourdeix and Prades Reference Bourdeix and Prades2017). Conservation encompasses the responsible management, protection, restoration and sustainable use of biological resources to ensure their continued availability for present and future generations (Borokini et al. Reference Borokini, Okere, Giwa, Daramola and Odofin2010).
Unlike most crops, coconut cannot be conserved through conventional seed banking because its large recalcitrant seeds are highly sensitive to desiccation and low-temperature storage. Consequently, field genebanks remain the primary strategy for conserving coconut genetic resources and provide the foundation for germplasm characterization, evaluation and breeding. However, field collections are land-intensive, expensive to maintain and increasingly vulnerable to climate change, pests, diseases and natural disasters (Bourdeix et al. Reference Bourdeix, Adkins, Johnson, Perera, Sisunandar, Adkins, Foale, Bourdeix, Nguyen and Biddle2020). Complementary approaches, including in vitro conservation and cryopreservation, have therefore become increasingly important for strengthening the long-term security and accessibility of coconut germplasm (Engelmann, Reference Engelmann, Batugal, Ramanatha Rao and Oliver2005; Sisunandar, Reference Sisunandar and Adkins2006; Bourdeix et al. Reference Bourdeix, Adkins, Johnson, Perera, Sisunandar, Adkins, Foale, Bourdeix, Nguyen and Biddle2020).
Despite these complementary approaches, coconut germplasm conservation continues to face significant scientific and operational constraints. In particular, the predominantly living nature of coconut collections, the technical challenges associated with tissue culture and cryopreservation and the need for substantial infrastructure, skilled personnel and financial resources limit the adoption of advanced conservation approaches. Similarly, although genomics, artificial intelligence (AI) and digital technologies offer considerable potential to improve germplasm characterization, management and breeding, their routine application remains constrained by the availability of standardized protocols, high-quality and interoperable datasets, computational infrastructure and capacity for technology implementation (Yang et al. Reference Yang, Nguyen, Nulu, Kalaipandian, Beveridge, Biddle, Young and Adkins2024; Deng et al. Reference Deng, Yang, Sisunandar, Tran, Kottekate, Shaftang and Mu2025). In addition, international germplasm exchange is increasingly influenced by policy, biosecurity and access-and-benefit-sharing requirements. Notably, coconut (Cocos) is included in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, bringing relevant coconut genetic resources within the scope of its Multilateral System of Access and Benefit-sharing, while national regulatory requirements may further influence their international exchange. Thus, international coconut germplasm exchange is increasingly influenced by policy, biosecurity and access-and-benefit-sharing requirements, further complicating global conservation efforts. These challenges highlight the need to strengthen and complement traditional field-based conservation systems. At the same time, the increasing demand for rapid characterization, safe duplication, long-term security and access to diverse germplasm for modern breeding underscores the importance of complementary conservation approaches, including cryopreservation and other ex situ methods.
This review critically evaluates recent advances in coconut genetic resource conservation and genebank management, focusing on how emerging technologies can be integrated and adopted by genebanks to enhance the security, efficiency, characterization, documentation and utilization of coconut germplasm. Drawing on discussions from the 2025 International Workshop on Strengthening Coconut Genebanks together with recent scientific literature, the review synthesizes current knowledge, critically assesses the strengths and limitations of existing conservation approaches and identifies key research gaps. It further proposes a strategic framework for developing next-generation coconut genebanks that integrate genomics, cryobiotechnology, AI, digital technologies and international collaboration to enhance conservation efficiency, improve germplasm utilization and accelerate climate-resilient coconut breeding.
Current status of global coconut genebanks
COGENT and the International Coconut Genebanks
Recognizing the need for coordinated global conservation, the Coconut Genetic Resources Network (COGENT) was established to promote the conservation, characterization, exchange and sustainable utilization of coconut germplasm. Operating under the International Coconut Community (ICC), COGENT coordinates international research and conservation activities through a global network of genebanks. Five International Coconut Genebanks (ICGs), located in Brazil, Côte d’Ivoire, India, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, represent the major coconut-growing regions and serve as regional hubs for germplasm conservation and exchange (Karun et al. Reference Karun, Ramesh, Rajesh, Niral, Sudha, Muralikrishna, Priyadarshan and Jain2022). Together, these genebanks facilitate the collection, characterization and distribution of genetically diverse coconut accessions, supporting breeding programmes and strengthening international collaboration (Karun et al. Reference Karun, Ramesh, Rajesh, Niral, Sudha, Muralikrishna, Priyadarshan and Jain2022).
Current collections
Current ex situ conservation relies primarily on field genebanks, while cryopreservation and in vitro culture of embryos and other tissues are being developed as complementary approaches for long-term conservation. In vitro embryo culture has been successfully applied to coconut germplasm collection, conservation and international exchange, particularly at the Indian Council of Agricultural Research-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (ICAR-CPCRI), India. The CPCRI embryo-culture protocol was used during 5 international germplasm collection missions between 1997 and 2001, resulting in the collection of 4,182 embryos representing 45 accessions from 8 countries (Karun et al. Reference Karun, Sajini, Radha and Parthasarathy2004). Cryopreservation has also been developed as a complementary strategy for long-term conservation. At ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBPGR), New Delhi, zygotic embryos (ZEs) from 29 coconut accessions, pollen from 15 accessions and DNA from 13 accessions have been maintained as cryopreserved or complementary genetic resources (ICAR-CPCRI, 2020). More recent international efforts, including work involving SPC-CePaCT and the University of Queensland, have investigated cryopreservation of coconut embryos and meristems using germplasm collected in Fiji (Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, ACIAR, 2026). However, compared with field genebanks, cryopreservation remains less widely implemented at genebank scale, and the size and composition of global cryopreserved coconut collections are not comprehensively documented.
The Coconut Genetic Resources Database (CGRD), developed under the COGENT, contains passport and characterization data for 1,416 coconut accessions conserved in national programmes across approximately 23 countries and 28 sites. These collections span the major coconut-growing regions of South and Southeast/East Asia, the South Pacific, Africa and the Indian Ocean, and Latin America and the Caribbean. However, the 1,416 accessions should not be interpreted as representing the entirety of global coconut diversity, as considerable variation remains conserved in farmers’ fields and in situ, and some coconut populations and farmer varieties have not been comprehensively collected or characterized (Bourdeix et al. Reference Bourdeix, Adkins, Johnson, Perera, Sisunandar, Adkins, Foale, Bourdeix, Nguyen and Biddle2020). Thus, field collections remain the principal source of germplasm for characterization, evaluation and breeding, while in vitro culture and cryopreservation provide complementary strategies for medium- and long-term conservation of embryos, pollen and other tissues, thereby improving the security and accessibility of valuable genetic resources (Sisunandar 2008; Engelmann 2004; Bourdeix et al. Reference Bourdeix, Adkins, Johnson, Perera, Sisunandar, Adkins, Foale, Bourdeix, Nguyen and Biddle2020).
Critical assessment
The current network provides broad geographical coverage, but its structure remains heavily dependent on field-based conservation and is uneven in its adoption of complementary technologies. By the early 2000s, the CGRD documented 1,416 accessions conserved at 25 sites in 23 countries, of which 224 accessions were held within the ICG system. These international collections were organized through five regional genebanks serving South Asia and the Middle East, Southeast and East Asia, the South Pacific, Africa and the Indian Ocean, and Latin America and the Caribbean. The International Coconut Genebank for South Asia and the Middle East (ICG-SAME), located at ICAR-CPCRI Research Centre, Kidu, India, conserves 464 accessions. The ICG for Africa and the Indian Ocean in Côte d’Ivoire maintains 127 accessions introduced from multiple geographical origins. The ICG for Latin America and the Caribbean, located in Sergipe, Brazil, maintains additional coconut germplasm collections. In Southeast Asia, the ICG, Indonesia, maintains 58 nationally recognized superior cultivars. The ICG for the South Pacific Region currently maintains 51 accessions, comprising 39 tall and 12 dwarf accessions. Together, these regional collections demonstrate the geographically distributed nature of coconut germplasm conservation across the major coconut-growing regions (ICAR-CPCRI 2025). Despite their continued importance, field-based collections demand substantial land, labour and financial inputs and are increasingly exposed to climate-related stresses, pest and disease outbreaks and extreme weather events (Henrietta Reference Henrietta2025). Although in vitro culture and cryopreservation provide important complementary conservation approaches, their routine application is still constrained by genotype-dependent responses, low post-cryopreservation recovery and difficulties in acclimatizing regenerated plantlets under field conditions (Deng et al. Reference Deng, Yang, Sisunandar, Tran, Kottekate, Shaftang and Mu2025). Furthermore, the integration of genomics, digital information systems and AI into routine genebank management remains limited, restricting the full utilization of conserved germplasm for crop improvement. These limitations highlight the need to transition from predominantly field-based collections towards integrated, technology-enabled genebank systems that combine advanced conservation methods with genomic, phenomic and digital decision-support tools to enhance the long-term conservation and utilization of coconut genetic resources.
Scientific advances improving coconut genebanks
Genetic diversity: The foundation of conservation and climate-resilient breeding
Conserving coconut genetic diversity provides the vital allelic traits – such as drought tolerance, disease resistance and high yield – needed to breed resilient, productive varieties adapted to changing climates. The National Active Germplasm Site in India exemplifies this approach by maintaining 464 accessions encompassing indigenous and exotic germplasm that support breeding programmes targeting a diverse range of traits. These include improved copra and oil yield, inflorescence sap and tender nut production, dual-purpose suitability for copra and tender nut, dwarf growth habit for high-density planting, increased copra content and tender nut volume, moisture stress tolerance, improved nitrogen-use efficiency and tolerance to eriophyid mite and root wilt disease (Ramesh et al., Reference Ramesh, Mary, Beegum Puthiya, Pandiselvam, Padmanabhan, Sathyan, Shil, Niral, Manikantan, Lokesha, Shivashankara and Hebbar2023). The resulting diversity provides valuable genetic resources for developing improved coconut varieties and hybrids adapted to diverse production and end-use requirements (Nampoothiri and Parthasarathy Reference Nampoothiri, Parthasarathy, Nampoothiri, Krishnakumar, Thampan and Achuthan Nair2018; Niral et al. Reference Niral, Jerard, Nampoothiri, Krishnakumar, Thampan and Achuthan Nair2018; Sudha et al. Reference Sudha, Rajesh, Niral, Samsudeen, Shil, Ramchander and Diwakar2023; Niral 2025).
The extent to which global coconut genetic diversity is represented within existing ex situ collections remains difficult to quantify, as a comprehensive gap analysis has not yet been undertaken. Anthropogenic climate shifts, emerging pathologies, such as lethal yellowing, and the underrepresentation of regional and exotic germplasm pose continuous threats to the long-term conservation of coconut genetic resources (Ortiz et al. Reference Ortiz, Ramos, Silverio, Peña, Narváez and Oropeza2024). Expanding collections with disease-resistant, compact and climate-resilient accessions has therefore become a priority, particularly in Latin America and Indonesia, while vulnerable Pacific Island genebanks (to Bogia Coconut Syndrome – a phytoplasmal disease) require strengthened conservation measures to safeguard germplasm threatened by phytoplasma-associated Bogia syndrome (Samsudin et al. Reference Samsudin and Igaa2025). These challenges highlight the need for coordinated international efforts to strengthen germplasm collection, characterization and exchange, ensuring that coconut genebanks continue to provide the genetic diversity required for future breeding and climate adaptation.
Molecular characterization enhances genebank management
Effective conservation therefore depends not only on expanding collections but also on accurately determining the genetic relationships, uniqueness and redundancy of conserved accessions, making molecular characterization an essential component of modern genebank management. Molecular characterization has the potential to significantly improve coconut genebank management by enabling accurate assessment of genetic diversity, identification of duplicate accessions and development of representative core collections. Among the available marker systems, simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers were the most widely adopted because of their high polymorphism and reproducibility in this highly heterozygous, outcrossing species. SSR-based studies in coconut accessions conserved at ICG-SAME have revealed substantial genetic variation within and among coconut populations, clarified population structure based on geographic origin. In the long term, extending such an exercise to other ICG field genebanks could improve the identification and management of unique germplasm while reducing redundancy across international collections (Sudha et al. Reference Sudha, Rajesh, Niral, Samsudeen, Shil, Ramchander and Diwakar2023; da Silva et al. Reference da Silva, Costa, Diniz, Ramos and Fritsche-Neto2024).
For example, analysis of 16 accessions from the ICG-SAME, India, using SSR markers identified high levels of genetic diversity and consistently separated accessions into two major genetic groups corresponding to dwarf and tall coconut types (Sudha et al. Reference Sudha, Rajesh, Niral, Samsudeen, Shil, Ramchander and Diwakar2023). More recently, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers have provided much higher genome-wide resolution for investigating genetic diversity, population structure and evolutionary relationships. Studies across Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia, Vietnam and international germplasm collections have consistently identified distinct genetic groupings associated with geographic origin and coconut type while also revealing substantial diversity within populations (Muñoz-Pérez et al. Reference Muñoz-Pérez, Cañas, López and Arias2022; Yousefi et al. Reference Yousefi, Abdullah, Hatta and Ling2023; da Silva et al. Reference da Silva, Costa, Diniz, Ramos and Fritsche-Neto2024). Consequently, recent research has increasingly shifted from SSR- to SNP-based genotyping because of its greater resolution for core collection development, genome-wide diversity analysis and genomic-assisted breeding (Sudha et al. Reference Sudha, Rajesh, Niral, Samsudeen, Shil, Ramchander and Diwakar2023; da Silva et al. Reference da Silva, Costa, Diniz, Ramos and Fritsche-Neto2024). Nevertheless, the routine application of molecular characterization across global coconut collections remains constrained by uneven sampling, limited representation of underutilized germplasm and the need for standardized genotyping protocols and interoperable databases to facilitate international data sharing and comparative analyses.
Genomics is accelerating coconut breeding and conservation
Advances in genome sequencing and functional genomics provide valuable resources for germplasm characterization, trait discovery and molecular breeding. High-quality chromosome-scale genome assemblies of Cocos nucifera (∼2.4 Gb arranged into 16 chromosomes) have facilitated the identification of genes controlling economically important traits, including kernel quality, aroma, abiotic stress tolerance and disease resistance (Rajesh et al. Reference Rajesh, Ramesh, Karun and Chowdappa2021; Yang et al. Reference Yang, Bocs, Fan, Armero, Baudouin, Xu, Xu, This, Hamelin, Iqbal and Qadri2021). Comparative genomic analyses of tall and dwarf coconuts have further revealed extensive genetic variation, including thousands of SNPs, SSRs and candidate genes associated with plant stature, oil biosynthesis, drought tolerance, salinity adaptation and disease resistance, providing a strong genomic foundation for conservation and crop improvement (Xiao et al. Reference Xiao, Xu, Fan, Baudouin, Xia, Bocs, Xu, Li, Guo, Zhou, Li, Wu, Ma, Armero, Issali, Liu, Peng and Yang2017; Lantican et al. Reference Lantican, Strickler, Canama, Gardoce, Mueller and Galvez2019; Rajesh et al. Reference Rajesh, Chowdappa, Behera, Kasaragod, Gangaraj, Kotimoole, Nekrakalaya, Mohanty, Sampgod and Banerjee2020).
Functional genomics has advanced our understanding of economically important traits in plantation crops, particularly coconut (Ramesh et al. Reference Ramesh, Rajesh and Karun2022). Genomic and transcriptomic analyses have identified candidate genes controlling the macapuno phenotype, a commercially valuable soft endosperm trait, enabling the development of molecular markers for marker-assisted selection (Nguyen et al. Reference Nguyen, Bandupriya, Foale and Adkins2016; Angeles et al. Reference Angeles, Lado, Pascual, Cueto, Laurena and Laude2018). Similarly, genome-wide association studies and transcriptome analyses have identified genes involved in the biosynthesis of 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline, the compound responsible for the characteristic aroma of aromatic coconut varieties (Saensuk et al. Reference Saensuk, Wanchana, Choowongkomon, Wongpornchai, Kraithong, Imsabai, Chaichoompu, Ruanjaichon, Toojinda, Vanavichit and Arikit2016; Arunachalam et al. Reference Arunachalam, Ramesh, Rajesh and Muralikrishna2021; Ding et al. Reference Ding, Lv, Zhou, Liu, Sun, Li, Iqbal and Yang2025). Comparative transcriptomic studies have also revealed key drought-responsive genes involved in hormone signalling pathways, transcriptional regulation, osmotic adjustment, antioxidant defence and stomatal regulation, providing insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying abiotic stress tolerance (Ramesh et al. Reference Ramesh, Hebbar, Rajesh, Sukumar, Gangaraj and Bobby2021; Akter et al. Reference Akter, Li, Lv, Saand, Mehvish, Sayed and Yang2025). Recent advances in CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing offer promising opportunities to accelerate the genetic improvement of coconut and other palm species, although challenges related to transformation efficiency, regeneration and regulatory acceptance remain (Ramesh et al. Reference Ramesh, Rajesh, Das and Hebbar2024).
Beyond trait discovery, genomics is increasingly driving climate-resilient coconut breeding and pre-breeding programmes. By pairing coconut genomic information with regional bioclimatic datasets, advanced approaches like genome-wide selection scans and genome–environment association (GEA) analyses allow researchers to screen diverse coconut ecotypes. This integration enables the rapid identification of specific alleles and adaptive markers linked to critical coastal and inland stressors – such as drought, high salinity and extreme heat – thereby accelerating the selection of resilient parental palms (Ferrer et al. Reference Ferrer, Lantican and Reaño2022; Bernatchez et al. Reference Bernatchez, Ferchaud, Berger, Venney and Xuereb2024). Moreover, because coconut requires approximately 6–10 years to reach reproductive maturity, genomic selection offers one of the most promising strategies for shortening breeding cycles by enabling the early identification of superior seedlings before lengthy field evaluations (Arumugam and Hatta Reference Arumugam and Hatta2022; Ramesh et al. Reference Ramesh, Rajesh, Das and Hebbar2024). Despite these advances, the routine application of genomic tools in coconut breeding remains limited by the availability of large, well-phenotyped populations, standardized genomic resources and robust genotype–phenotype association platforms. However, the value of genomic information depends increasingly on the ability of genebanks to integrate it with phenotypic, environmental, passport and conservation data. This creates a need for digital infrastructures and analytical tools capable of managing and interpreting increasingly complex germplasm datasets.
AI and digital technologies enable next-generation genebanks
AI and digital technologies have great potential to transform coconut genebanks by enhancing germplasm characterization, phenotyping, documentation, pest surveillance and decision support (CGIAR, 2024). Integrating AI with modern biotechnological tools – including marker-assisted selection, genomic breeding, transcriptomics, CRISPR-based genome editing and embryo-culture-driven speed breeding – offers unprecedented opportunities to bypass the long generation cycles of coconut. By deploying machine learning models to analyse multi-omics and environmental datasets, researchers can accelerate the accurate identification of superior coconut genotypes while also providing opportunities for more systematic characterization, prioritization and management of germplasm collections (Tsega and Mullualem Reference Tsega and Mullualem2026). Furthermore, the integration of machine learning, phenomics and genomics into ‘smart genebanks’ offers opportunities for more precise trait prediction and supports evidence-based decision-making in germplasm conservation and breeding (Aggarwal et al. Reference Aggarwal, Rathore, Jan, Sharma, Kumar, Thudi, Jighly, Varshney and Mir2026). Functional genomics has also facilitated the identification of genes controlling economically important traits, such as the macapuno endosperm phenotype and coconut aroma, thereby enabling marker-assisted selection and quality control in the production of elite lines (Saensuk et al. Reference Saensuk, Wanchana, Choowongkomon, Wongpornchai, Kraithong, Imsabai, Chaichoompu, Ruanjaichon, Toojinda, Vanavichit and Arikit2016; Lado et al. Reference Lado, Arellano, Osio, Tendero, de la Vina, Torio, Laude and Diaz2019).
Digital infrastructure is increasingly important for the effective management and utilization of global coconut genetic resources. Coconut genebank systems should adopt standardized accession identifiers and persistent identifiers, including digital object identifiers for datasets and collection records, to improve the traceability and interoperability of germplasm information (Shaw et al. Reference Shaw, Weise, Obreza, Raubach, McCouch, Kilian and Werner2023). Linking accession-level records with passport, characterization, evaluation, phenotypic, genomic and conservation data would facilitate comparison among collections and support the identification of duplicate or closely related accessions. Integration of these linked records with international germplasm information platforms would improve data accessibility, facilitate secure information exchange and strengthen collaboration and coordinated management among coconut genebanks. High-throughput digital phenotyping technologies – including unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), mobile applications and hyperspectral remote sensing – employed in other horticultural crops, including tree crops, such as mango, offer rapid, non-destructive approaches for assessing coconut palms and quantifying canopy traits associated with yield, drought tolerance and climate resilience (Apacionado and Ahamad Reference Apacionado, Ahamed and Ahamed2026). When integrated into advanced phenomics platforms featuring sensors, robotics and genomic prediction, these systems effectively overcome traditional field bottlenecks by allowing high-throughput evaluation of complex palm physiology, including stomatal frequency, chlorophyll fluorescence, epicuticular wax content and root architecture (Barh et al. Reference Barh, Khan and Davies2015; Müller-Linow et al. Reference Müller-Linow, Wilhelm, Briese, Wojciechowski, Schurr and Fiorani2019; Isabel et al. Reference Isabel, Holliday and Aitken2020). Future efforts should therefore focus on harmonizing high-quality phenotypic data collection protocols in gene banks, developing interoperable databases and integrating AI-driven analytics with genomics and breeding programmes to realize the full potential of next-generation coconut genebanks.
Cryoconservation strengthens long-term germplasm security
In view of limitations of conventional seed storage, complementary in vitro conservation approaches have focused on the use of ZEs, with studies examining their culture on modified Y3 or MS media and their short- to medium-term storage under controlled conditions. For example, coconut embryos have been maintained in sterile water or sucrose-free MS medium for several months, while dehydrated embryos stored at −20°C and −80°C showed recovery of 12% after 3 weeks and 28% after 26 weeks, respectively. These sub-zero treatments provide a potential medium-term storage option but are distinct from cryopreservation and are not considered a substitute for long-term cryogenic storage (Sisunandar et al. Reference Sisunandar, Sopade, Samosir, Rival and Adkins2012).
Cryopreservation of coconut embryos has subsequently been investigated as a complementary strategy for the long-term security and duplication of field collections. Studies have demonstrated recovery of coconut ZEs following dehydration and liquid-nitrogen exposure, although recovery efficiency remains strongly influenced by embryo maturity, genotype, moisture content, dehydration rate and cryopreservation protocol. Recent work has further improved the dehydration step preceding cryopreservation. Bazrafshan et al. (Reference Bazrafshan, Sudarma, Kalaipandian, Biddle, Mu, Kong, Nulu and Adkins2025) developed a rapid physical-dehydration system that reduced embryo moisture content to approximately 20% within 6 h, while a sucrose pretreatment reduced the dehydration period to 4 h and maintained approximately 70% germination. The system could process approximately 150 embryos per run, highlighting its potential for increasing the throughput of coconut embryo cryopreservation. Nevertheless, these advances primarily represent protocol development and optimization; cryopreservation remains less widely implemented at genebank scale than field conservation, and a comprehensive inventory of cryopreserved coconut accessions worldwide is still unavailable (Welewanni et al. Reference Welewanni, Perera, Jayasekera and Bandupriya2020).
ICAR-NBPGR, New Delhi, has maintained cryopreserved coconut materials, including ZEs from 29 accessions, pollen from 15 accessions and DNA from 13 accessions (ICAR-CPCRI, 2020). Nevertheless, cryopreservation remains less widely implemented at genebank scale than field conservation, and a comprehensive inventory of the number of coconut accessions currently maintained under cryogenic storage across the global genebank network is not available (Wilms et al. Reference Wilms, Rhee, Rivera, Longin, Panis and Kongsawadworakul2019). Unlike field collections, cryogenic storage in liquid nitrogen (−196°C) enables the long-term preservation of genetically stable germplasm with minimal maintenance requirements.
Recent advances, such as the development of specialized desiccator that enabled rapid embryo dehydration with ultra-dry airflow, in cryobiotechnology have improved the preservation of coconut ZEs, pollen, embryogenic callus and shoot meristems through optimized vitrification, encapsulation-dehydration and controlled dehydration protocols (Bazrafshan et al. Reference Bazrafshan, Sudarma, Kalaipandian, Biddle, Mu, Kong, Nulu and Adkins2025). Successful cryopreservation depends on minimizing intracellular ice crystal formation while maintaining a stable vitreous state during cooling and rewarming through carefully optimized physical and chemical dehydration treatments (Nguyen et al. Reference Nguyen, Nguyen and Le2023). Despite these advances, the routine application of cryopreservation remains constrained by low post-thaw recovery, genotype-dependent responses and the difficulty of regenerating cryopreserved tissues into vigorous, field-established plants. Future research should therefore focus on optimizing explant selection, standardizing cryopreservation protocols and recovery media, integrating automated cryobiotechnology platforms and developing robust evaluation criteria for post-cryopreservation regeneration and field establishment. Addressing these challenges will enhance the long-term security, accessibility and sustainable utilization of global coconut germplasm collections (Nguyen et al. Reference Nguyen, Nguyen and Le2023).
Tissue culture supports germplasm exchange and elite variety deployment
Tissue culture is an indispensable component of coconut genebank management, facilitating the production of disease-free, genetically uniform planting material and supporting the international exchange of valuable germplasm (Karun et al. Reference Karun, Sajini and Niral2014). ICGs across regions – such as South Asia (India), Latin America (Brazil) and the South Pacific – rely heavily on tissue culture and embryo culture laboratories. Because whole coconuts are bulky and prone to spreading pathogens, these facilities extract and grow the palm’s embryo in vitro to ensure safe, disease-free international transfer. Thus, in vitro culture provides an effective alternative for the conservation, multiplication and distribution of elite and rare germplasm. Techniques such as embryo culture, somatic embryogenesis and micropropagation have expanded the capacity to propagate selected genotypes, thereby supporting breeding programmes and accelerating the deployment of elite cultivars as well as improved varieties. Recently, Mohammedali et al. (Reference Mohammedali, Thomas, Sreelekshmi and Maya Lekshmi2026) have optimized a protocol for direct shoot organogenesis and plantlet regeneration using immature inflorescence explants of coconut. A key strength of their approach is the elimination of the intermediate callus stage, which may reduce the risk of somaclonal variation and thereby improve genetic fidelity. The protocol demonstrates considerable potential for the efficient production of healthy, true-to-type coconut plantlets, particularly in tall cultivars and hybrids. However, its broader applicability and commercial feasibility would benefit from further validation across diverse genotypes and under large-scale propagation conditions. Overall, the study provides a promising foundation for the mass multiplication and long-term conservation of elite coconut germplasm.
Nevertheless, the successful establishment of tissue culture-derived plantlets remains one of the major constraints limiting the widespread application of coconut biotechnology. The success of germplasm exchange depends not only on in vitro regeneration but also on the survival and field establishment of regenerated plantlets following transfer to ex vitro conditions (Yang et al. Reference Yang, Nguyen, Nulu, Kalaipandian, Beveridge, Biddle, Young and Adkins2024). Coconut plantlets frequently exhibit poor acclimatization due to underdeveloped stomata, reduced epicuticular wax deposition and limited photosynthetic competence, resulting in excessive transpiration and increased susceptibility to environmental stress (Samosir and Adkins Reference Samosir and Adkins2014). Future improvements should focus on optimizing photoautotrophic culture systems, automated acclimatization technologies and scalable propagation protocols while integrating tissue culture with cryopreservation and molecular quality control. These advances will improve plant survival, enhance the efficiency of international germplasm exchange and accelerate the deployment of elite, climate-resilient coconut varieties.
Other challenges for next-generation coconut genebanks
The limitations identified for individual conservation technologies are part of broader systemic constraints that affect the operation and sustainability of coconut genebanks. Resolving these systemic issues demands a transition from fragmented regional efforts to synchronized scientific, institutional and policy-driven solutions.
Technical constraints
Although considerable progress has been made in cryopreservation and tissue culture, their routine application remains limited by low post-cryopreservation recovery and poor survival of regenerated plantlets during ex vitro acclimatization (Samosir and Adkins Reference Samosir and Adkins2014; Yang et al. Reference Yang, Nguyen, Nulu, Kalaipandian, Beveridge, Biddle, Young and Adkins2024). Because complex agronomic traits like coconut yield, salinity tolerance and drought resistance are controlled by numerous polygenic loci of small effect, conventional marker-assisted selection remains largely ineffective. Consequently, combining high-throughput phenotyping platforms with genomics, transcriptomics and genomic prediction models is critical. This multi-omics integration will enhance genetic trait dissection, ultimately accelerating the deployment of climate-adaptive palms and specialized varieties tailored for downstream industrial processing (Tilley Reference Tilley2025).
Infrastructure and financial sustainability
Systemic vulnerabilities – specifically outdated infrastructure, acute technical resource gaps and erratic funding – threaten the continuity of coconut genebanks worldwide. The widespread reliance on conventional field genebanks compounds this risk by necessitating massive land and labour inputs while leaving precious germplasm exposed to climate shocks and disease outbreaks. Consequently, a coordinated influx of capital into advanced conservation facilities, automated digital tracking systems and institutional capacity building is urgently required (Ghamkhar et al. Reference Ghamkhar, Hay, Engbers, Dempewolf and Schurr2025). These structural upgrades are vital to safeguard coconut genetic diversity and unlock the capacity to rapidly identify elite parental lines tailored for industrial and climate-adaptive breeding (Aubry Reference Aubry2023)
Policy, governance and germplasm exchange
International germplasm exchange remains essential for broadening the genetic base of breeding programmes but can be restricted due to legal and regulatory frameworks governing access and benefit sharing. Intellectual property rights, biosecurity requirements, equitable benefit sharing and compliance with international agreements can delay or restrict the movement of germplasm between countries. Although bilateral Material Transfer Agreements (MTAs) and Memoranda of Understanding provide important localized legal mechanisms, the implementation of the legally mandated Standard MTA under the Multilateral System – owing to coconut’s inclusion in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture ITPGRFA – together with transparent documentation and traceability systems remains critical for strengthening structured international collaboration (Halewood et al. Reference Halewood, Jamora, Noriega, Anglin, Wenzl, Payne, Ndjiondjop, Guarino, Kumar, Yazbek and Muchugi2020).
Climate change and genetic vulnerability
Climate change poses one of the greatest long-term threats to coconut genetic resources (Nuwarapaksha et al. Reference Nuwarapaksha, Udumann, Dissanayaka and Atapattu2026). Field genebanks are increasingly exposed to extreme weather events, typhoons prolonged drought, sea-level rise and emerging pests and disease outbreaks, including lethal yellowing and phytoplasma-associated Bogia syndrome (Lu et al. Reference Lu, Wilson, Zhang, Woruba, Feng, Johnson, Komolong, Kuniata, Yang and Gurr2024). These risks highlight the importance of developing climate-resilient conservation strategies that combine geographically distributed safety duplicates, complementary cryo-conservation, in situ conservation and predictive monitoring systems (Deng et al. Reference Deng, Yang, Sisunandar, Tran, Kottekate, Shaftang and Mu2025). Such an integrated approach will reduce the risk of genetic erosion while improving the resilience and long-term security of global coconut germplasm collections.
Strategic framework for next-generation coconut genebanks
The preceding sections demonstrate that while substantial progress has been made in conserving coconut genetic resources, current conservation systems remain constrained by fragmented germplasm management, limited integration of emerging technologies, inadequate funding and increasing climate-related risks. Addressing these challenges requires a transition from conventional field-based collections towards integrated, technology-enabled genebanks that combine the scientifically managed field gene banks and advanced conservation methods with genomics, AI, digital information systems and coordinated international governance. Synthesizing the outcomes and consensus of the 2025 International Workshop (International Workshop on Strengthening Coconut Genebanks, Kasaragod, Kerala, India) alongside a critical evaluation of recent literature, we propose a strategic framework comprising seven complementary pillars that collectively strengthen the long-term conservation and utilization of coconut genetic resources (Table 1; Fig. 1). The operationalization of this framework requires a dual-level governance model rather than independent, fragmented adoption by single facilities. Globally, implementation will be coordinated through established network ICC, which will serve as the central node for harmonizing digital information systems, establishing standardized AI/genomic protocols and managing multilateral funding. Locally, individual genebanks will act as decentralized nodes, adopting these unified standards within their specific operational capacities. This synchronized approach ensures global interoperability of coconut germplasm data while respecting national sovereign rights and regional legal frameworks.
Strategic framework for developing next-generation coconut genebanks. (Conventional coconut conservation is increasingly constrained by climate change, pests and diseases, ageing field genebanks, fragmented data systems, limited funding and slow breeding cycles. Integrating emerging technologies – including genomics, artificial intelligence (AI), digital databases, cryobiotechnology and phenomics – into an interconnected conservation platform can overcome these limitations by improving germplasm characterization, conservation efficiency and international exchange. This integrated approach supports accelerated deployment of climate-resilient cultivars and strengthens the long-term sustainability of global coconut production).
Figure 1 Long description
The infographic outlines the integration of coconut genebanks. It starts with ′Current Challenges′ including climate change, pests, aging field genebanks, limited funding and slow breeding. These lead to ′Current Limitations′ such as field genebanks with vulnerable trees, cryopreservation, data fragmentation and poor germplasm exchange. ′Emerging Technologies′ like genomics, AI, digital databases, cryobiotechnology and phenomics are highlighted. These technologies contribute to the ′Integrated Coconut Genebank′ resulting in improved conservation, climate-resilient breeding, farmer adoption and sustainable coconut production.
Strategic priorities for building resilient and modern coconut genebanks
Table 1 Long description
Columns are, Strategic pillar, Rationale, Implementation pathway, and Expected outcome, with seven rows of actions for coconut genebanks. Strengthen international collaboration lists harmonizing Material Transfer Agreements, strengthening ICC and COGENT partnerships, and facilitating exchange under the ITPGRFA Article 15 framework, with outcomes of better access to diverse germplasm, stronger collaboration, and enhanced conservation security. Maintain genetic integrity lists standardizing regeneration, characterization, documentation, and georeferencing, plus developing core collections supported by molecular profiles, with outcomes of improved genetic fidelity, traceability, and more efficient collection management. Modernize genebanks lists integrating phenomics, genomics, sensor based technologies, artificial intelligence, digital databases, and decision support systems into routine operations, with outcomes of data driven conservation planning, reduced redundancy, and developing repository of allele specific and trait specific donor lines towards enhanced utilization of genetic resources and varietal development. Accelerate elite variety deployment lists optimizing tissue culture, embryo rescue, cryopreservation, and nursery propagation while strengthening research extension farmer linkages, with outcomes of faster dissemination of planting materials of elite, processable, disease resistant, and climate resilient varieties amongst stakeholders. Enhance biosecurity and climate resilience lists phyto sanitary protocols, coordinated drone based surveillance, climate risk assessment, predictive monitoring, and geographically distributed safety duplicates, with outcomes of safe movement of genetic resources, improved resilience of collections, and reduced risk of genetic erosion. Build capacity and knowledge exchange lists regional training programmes, online learning platforms, technical workshops, and extension services for researchers and farmers, with outcomes of enhanced technical capacity and wider adoption of improved conservation and breeding practices. Secure sustainable funding and policy support lists government funding, donor support, and public private partnerships while aligning national policies with international agreements and equitable benefit sharing principles, with outcomes of sustainable conservation programmes, stronger governance, and long term policy commitment.
Together, these seven strategic pillars provide a practical roadmap for transforming conventional coconut genebanks into resilient, digitally connected conservation systems that better support sustainable conservation systems, climate-resilient breeding, international germplasm exchange and the long-term preservation of global coconut genetic diversity.
Future perspectives
Conducting a global gap analysis of coconut genetic resources should be a priority. Although existing genebanks collectively conserve substantial coconut diversity, the proportion of global diversity that remains unrepresented has not been quantitatively established. A comprehensive gap analysis should combine geographic, passport, phenotypic, molecular and genebank inventory data with information on farmer-maintained and in situ diversity. This would help identify under-represented regions, populations and traits and guide targeted germplasm collection, duplication, conservation and characterization efforts. Establishing such a baseline would also enable future assessment of progress in improving the coverage of global coconut genetic diversity. The future of coconut conservation lies not in expanding conventional field collections alone but in transforming them into integrated, digitally connected and genomically informed conservation platforms. Such next-generation genebanks should combine field collections with cryopreservation, in vitro conservation, high-throughput phenotyping, genomics and AI to improve the efficiency of germplasm conservation, characterization and utilization. Integrating genomic prediction, GEA analyses and AI-driven decision-support systems will enable more effective identification of climate-resilient germplasm and accelerate the development of improved coconut cultivars.
Future research should prioritize the development of standardized phenotyping platforms, interoperable global databases, automated tissue culture and cryopreservation systems, and robust genotype–phenotype association pipelines that facilitate the practical application of genomic discoveries in breeding programmes. In parallel, remote sensing technologies, including satellites, UAVs, Internet of Things sensors and AI-based monitoring systems, should be integrated into genebank management to enable real-time assessment of plant health, pest and disease surveillance and climate risk. Long-term success will also depend on sustained international collaboration through ICC–COGENT, supportive policy frameworks, stable financial investment and effective knowledge transfer to breeding programmes and smallholder farmers, ensuring that conserved genetic resources translate into resilient, productive and sustainable coconut production systems.
Conclusion
Coconut genetic resources are fundamental to the future resilience and sustainability of coconut production under increasing pressures from climate change, emerging pests and diseases and evolving market demands. This review demonstrates that while significant advances have been achieved in molecular characterization, genomics, cryopreservation, tissue culture and digital technologies, important scientific, technical and institutional challenges continue to limit the full utilization of coconut germplasm. Addressing these constraints will require a transition from predominantly field-based conservation towards integrated, technology-enabled genebank systems that combine advanced conservation methods with genomics, AI, digital information systems and coordinated international governance.
The strategic framework proposed in this review provides a roadmap for strengthening global coconut genebanks through enhanced international collaboration, standardized conservation protocols, digital transformation, climate-resilient conservation strategies and sustainable investment. By integrating scientific innovation with effective governance and international cooperation, next-generation coconut genebanks can move beyond safeguarding genetic diversity to become dynamic platforms that accelerate climate-resilient breeding, support sustainable livelihoods and enhance global food and nutritional security.
Acknowledgements
The scientific discussions and knowledge exchange during the International Workshop on Strengthening Coconut Genebanks (2–5 September 2025) provided valuable insights that informed the preparation of this review.
Funding statement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi, India, and the International Coconut Community (ICC), Jakarta, Indonesia.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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