Devon

The first indication of a red animal – references to colour were then few – that was clearly a prototype Devon appears when a bull came into Tavistock Abbey in 1366 as a tenant's ha'p'orth (Finberg, Reference Finberg1951). Before the end of the seventeenth century, the Devon's progenitors were “as good as any in the Kingdom” (Trow-Smith, Reference Trow-Smith1957). There is much evidence for concentrations of cattle in northwest Devon spanning the period Domesday to the end of the seventeenth century, giving an unbroken ancestry of 600 years and providing a lineage as ancient as any British bovine. Cattle were still small as this period closed, as naval purveyors fixed the minimum weight of a fat ox – aged 4–5 years – at 6 cwt (672 pounds, 305 kg) (Hamilton, Reference Hamilton1878). The elite Devon herd of the late eighteenth century was that of the Quartly family who farmed on Exmoor's southerly slopes. During wars with France and the United States in 1800–1815, many better animals were sold for beef to feed the armies resulting, in many cases, in degeneration of the stock. Quartly set about improving this situation by buying in animals, outbidding butchers, and – as one noted breeder remarked – taking the trump in every hand and retaining it for breeding (Hall and Clutton-Brock, Reference Hall and Clutton-Brock1989). Early-nineteenth-century Devons were bred for meat and draught, with milk production being only a minor consideration (Tanner Davy, Reference Tanner Davy1869). The Devon is also known as Beef Devon, North Devon, Red Devon and Red Ruby (Mason, Reference Mason1996).

A medium-large middle-horned beast, the Devon, is deep cherry red in colour. The breed is renowned for its thriftiness, ability to thrive under adverse conditions, docility, fertility and mothering ability (for much of the twentieth-century cows suckled two calves). Attempts were made to promote Devons as dairy animals during the 1920s and 1930s, and a special section was introduced in the Herd Book. Long noted for milk quality – butterfat and solids-not-fat – rather than quantity there was little support for this initiative and any impetus soon faltered. Since the early nineteenth century, however, and with less use of oxen for draught, the Devon has been developed as a specialist beef breed. During the first half of the twentieth century, it maintained its eminence in major show rings in interbreed competitions and at fatstock shows at Smithfield and elsewhere. In the early 1900s, Devon bullocks on grass weighed about 12 cwt (1 344 pounds, 611 kg). The champion Devon at Smithfield's Christmas Fatstock show in 1912 weighed 17 hundredweight and 2 pounds (1 906 pounds, 866 kg) at 33 months (Kidner, Reference Kidner1912). Average bulls at that time probably weighed about 800 kg and cows about 500 kg. Weights of both sexes have risen in response to competition from continental breeds, mainly from within-breed selection, although there has been limited cross-breeding by some breeders in attempts to improve size. Bull calves are now expected to gain in excess of 1 000 g/day and heifers more than 750 g/day from birth to 2 years, but these values are regularly exceeded. Today's bulls weigh 1 000–1 100 kg and cows 650–750 kg. The modern Devon has emerged from its own global recession, mainly through outcrossing but with some assistance from cross-breeding, and is a larger, longer and leaner beast than its ancestors (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

A modern pure-bred Devon yearling bull (Bartridge China Boy 8th M08044, 18 month [556 days], weight 668 kg, average daily gain 1 125 g).

Pedigree records (Davy's Devon Herd Book, volume 1) were first published in 1851. These related to the lineage of 132 bulls and 483 cows. Volume 4 (1863) brought details of 768 bulls and 2 474 females on to the record (Tanner Davy, Reference Tanner Davy1869). The Devon Cattle Breeders' Society was formed in 1884. The Herd Book has been published annually and has now reached volume 132. The society has almost 600 members in 2010. The transition from the nineteenth to the twentieth century was a golden age for the Devon. The breed spread throughout the country from its southwestern homeland. By 1908, it was the second most numerous breed in the United Kingdom. At 454 694 head it had, admittedly, only about 10 percent of Shorthorn numbers (4 413 040 heads) but was ahead of Herefords (384 877) by 70 000 heads and Aberdeen Angus (193 960) by more than a quarter of a million animals (BoA, 1908).

Cattle from Devon were taken to the British North American colonies in 1624 (Deane, Reference Deane1851), to Cape Colony (South Africa) in 1800 (SASB, 1971), to Van Dieman's Land (Tasmania, Australia) in 1825 (DCBSA, 2009) and to New Zealand in 1836 (NZRDCBA, 2009). By the mid-1860s, Devon cattle had been exported to France, Mexico, Jamaica and Canada (Tanner Davy, Reference Tanner Davy1869). Over succeeding years, Devons were exported to many countries (Figure 3). Brazil has been the main destination of UK exports, followed by South Africa and then Australia, United States and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe). Between 1901 and 1990, at least 1 751 Devons, comprising 722 bulls and 1 029 cows/heifers, were exported. Most animals were exported just prior to and immediately after the First World War when bulls seemed in greatest demand and then in the 20-year period following the Second World War when females were mainly sought. Devons overseas were kept pure, crossed on other beef or dairy animals, or used to create new breeds. Examples of the last include Tambov Red in Russia (Dmitriev and Ernst, Reference Dmitriev and Ernst1989; Mason, Reference Mason1996), Jamaica Red (Mason, Reference Mason1996) to a limited extent, Australian Sahiwal (Mason, Reference Mason1996) and a composite Zebu x British type for use in northern Australia (Kelley, Reference Kelley1959). In the early twenty-first century, there were Devon breeders' societies in Brazil (300 members), Australia (80+ members), New Zealand (50+ members) and the United States. In South Africa and Canada, Devons are registered in the respective national Stud Books.

Figure 3.

Numbers of Devon cattle exported to various countries from United Kingdom, 1901–1990.

Success of the Devon at home and overseas is associated with its ability to produce top-quality beef as a pure bred and as a cross under varying climatic conditions. In a period when other breeds were being modified irredeemably by cross-breeding in “improvement” programmes, the Devon made greater use of within-breed selection. This has been more the case abroad than at home, however, where it is often the proud boast of the breed societies that Devons retain the genetic purity that was developed over several centuries in their original homeland. This does not mean that the breed has not continued to develop. Progressive management and breeding techniques have seen Devons adapt well to the modern beef industry worldwide. Performance recording has identified superior animals and polled strains (developed by limited cross-breeding with polled breeds) are widely available. Today's consumers are demanding that the beef they eat is more natural, produced from grass, has not been tainted with growth promoters or truck loads of veterinary pharmaceuticals, tastes better and has generally caused little damage to the environment in its production. If farming is to be sustainable, it will be the hardy most efficient breeds that fulfil environmental and economic criteria and Devons are among those best placed to satisfy these demands.

South Devon

Once known as Hammer and South Hams (Mason, Reference Mason1996) from the district to the north of Plymouth where the breed originated, the South Devon was in the course of developing in the late eighteenth century (Trow-Smith, Reference Trow-Smith1959) although others claim they had “been in the south part of Devon from time immemorial” (Fraser, Reference Fraser1794). Even at that time the South Devon was a large beast (mature oxen weighed up to 12 hundredweight [1 344 pounds, 611 kg]) and produced a fairly high yield of extremely rich milk. There is little doubt that this light red curly coated animal was a result of a Channel Island or Normandy cross on the red middlehorn that was the Devon itself and the use of “Alderney” cattle in southern Devon at this time is well attested. South Devon breeders tend to deny the use of Channel Island or French animals but blood typing in the 1950s showed common haemoglobin properties in Jerseys, Guernseys and South Devons (Trow-Smith, Reference Trow-Smith1959). In the mid-nineteenth century, the South Devon was still largely restricted to the South Hams as elsewhere, as a beef animal, its carcass was considered to have “more of the fourpenny and less of the ninepenny beef”. In the following years, within-breed selection led to considerable improvement. Early in the twentieth century, the breed was dual purpose for beef and milk although milk was used both as liquid whole milk and, for its high fat content, for making butter.

The South Devon is much the largest of Britain's native breeds and is known for docility, mothering instinct, easy calving and longevity (SDHBS, 2010). Hardiness and adaptability, fast early growth from a plentiful supply of rich milk, an excellent ability to convert grass to flesh and early maturity are further breed characteristics. These traits are important for modern beef production, which is reliant on limited labour and minimum replacement costs. Rapid growth and early maturity mean a bull can begin to be used at 15–18 months of age and can often work 11–12 years. Females may calve at 2 years, although calving at 2½–3 years is still common, and produce calves annually for up to 15 years. In the 5 years 1907–1911, South Devons were always among the prize winners at the Royal Agricultural Society of England annual show. Cows at one show weighed 1 400–1 800 pounds (636–823 kg) and having been in milk for 50–140 days produced 24 h yields of 43 pounds 12 ounces (19.9 kg) to 72 pounds 6 ounces (32.9 kg). An animal that was “probably the heaviest beast yet bred” weighed 30 hundredweight (1 527 kg) when slaughtered at Plymouth in 1907 and yielded a carcass of 18 hundredweight and 7 pounds (919 kg) for a dressing percentage of 60.2 (Drennan, Reference Drennan1912).

The main expansion of the breed away from the southwest to the rest of the United Kingdom took place in the twentieth century. Exports helped support farm income at this time. Progression towards a specialized beef breed began in the 1960s when recording was introduced. Because of its size, length and width of carcass and its lean beef, the South Devon was better able to combat the onslaught of continental breeds in the 1960s/1970s than other native breeds. This saw increased demand outside Devon and Cornwall and some 5 000 heads were sent each year to other parts of the country for finishing or as breeding stock. Exports also increased with 170 bulls going to Canada, 150 to the United States and 90 to South Africa.

The South Devon is well placed in both intensive and extensive modern suckler systems (Figure 4). For the pedigree breeder it produces excellent replacements. As a crossing sire the bull allows production of replacement females on the farm. Good beef conformation and good milking and mothering abilities enable the South Devon to assist in improving a suckler herd's base stock. The South Devon is also used in two- or three-sire breed systems for increased hybrid vigour at each generation (SDHBS, 2010). As a terminal sire the South Devon reduces time to finishing and improves dressing percentage, carcass grades and meat quality.

Figure 4.

South Devon cow and calf in extensive suckler system (Grove Willow Herb 23rd and calf Grove Willow Herb 33rd, photo courtesy of Grove Farms Limited).

The South Devon Herd Book Society was founded in 1891. At that time it was considered that the breed's “recognition has been tardy; it has no aristocratic backing; its breeders are chiefly – almost mainly – tenant farmers, and it has had to overcome many prejudices …” (Drennan, Reference Drennan1912). By 1912, South Devons were present in South Africa, East Africa, Australia, New Zealand, United States, Brazil, China, Jamaica, Columbia and Japan (Drennan, Reference Drennan1912). The first overseas society was the South Devon Cattle Society of South Africa established in 1914. The North American South Devon Association was formed in 1974, as was the Canadian South Devon Association. Australia has two associations: the South Devon Cattle Society of Australia and the South Devon Cattle Breeders Australian Association. There is a South Devon Cattle Society of New Zealand and there are South Devons in Ireland and Zambia. The current popularity and versatility of the breed are attested to by the many other countries to which it has been exported.

Early types

In the mid-eighteenth century, introduction of (old) Leicester blood converted some local Devon types from coarse middlewools on the one hand into a polled medium-longwool that became the Devonshire Nott (“Nott” in Devon dialect means polled) and on the other hand to a horned medium-longwool that became the Exmoor (Fraser, Reference Fraser1794; Trow-Smith, Reference Trow-Smith1957). Sometime later, Devonshire gentry formed an improvement society to import New Leicester rams to improve local Devon or Bampton stock. Initial results were not promising, in part because rams brought in prior to 1794 were “by no means the best of the Leicestershire” (Fraser, Reference Fraser1794). In the early nineteenth century, the Notts were infused with further Leicester blood and became Bamptons, which, in the 1830s/1840s, weighed 120–150 pounds (54–68 kg) at 2 years of age and produced 7 pounds (3.2 kg) of wool valued rather highly at 12½–13 pence per pound. These in turn gave rise to the Devon Longwool and (Greyface) Dartmoor such that by the middle of the nineteenth century remnants of the original mountain types remained only in the remotest localities (Trow-Smith, Reference Trow-Smith1959).

Devon and Cornwall Longwool

Two long-established native breeds – South Devon and Devon Longwoolled – were amalgamated in 1977 to form the Devon and Cornwall Longwool with its own Flockbook Association (Mason, Reference Mason1996). The breed is also recognized in the Netherlands where it is registered with the Vereniging van Speciale Schapenrassen (VSS, 2009). Both original breeds emerged from transformation of the earlier local middlewools – Southam Nott and Bampton Nott – developed through the use of the New Leicester (Trow-Smith, Reference Trow-Smith1957, Reference Trow-Smith1959). The South Devon was a long wool and meat type very similar to the Devon Longwoolled but larger. In the mid-nineteenth century, it weighed 100–120 pounds (45–54 kg) and produced a fleece of 9 pounds (4.1 kg) of a mediocre value of 9 pence per pound. The Devon Longwoolled, a north Devon mutton and long wool type, became a recognized breed in the 1870s, a breed society existed from 1898 to 1977 and a Flock Book was established in 1900 (Mason, Reference Mason1996). Their wool was very strong and used mainly for rugs and carpets.

The modern Devon and Cornwall Longwool is dual purpose and produces a good carcass lamb and a heavy fleece (Figure 5). Mature rams weigh up to 136 kg and ewes up to 100 kg. Both sexes are polled. Prolificacy off grass is about 160 percent. Head and body are covered in long curly, white wool. Average fleece weight of rams is around 12 kg (but up to 20 kg is known) and of ewes 7 kg.

Figure 5.

Devon and Cornwall Longwool 2-shear ram in full fleece.

The staple length is 20–25 cm. The hard wearing coarse wool – Bradford wool count 32–40 (40–36 µm) – is best for carpet manufacture. Unusually, Devon and Cornwalls are shorn as lambs when they produce a particularly warm, resilient and valuable fleece. The breed is suitable for producing lean heavy lambs of 18–21 kg carcass weight finished on fodder crops for the winter market. When crossed with British Milksheep, Border Leicester, Cheviot or Suffolk a prolific halfbred ewe is produced, which is ideal for early lamb production.

In spite of the amalgamation of two different breeds 30 years ago, the new breed remains rare. On the Rare Breeds Survival Trust (RBST) Watchlist it is placed in Category 3, Vulnerable (RBST, 2009).

Greyface Dartmoor

The Greyface Dartmoor, also known as the “Dartmoor” or “Improved Dartmoor”, was developed between 1820 and 1909 by selection from the original Dartmoor and by judicious crossing with the New Leicester (Mason, Reference Mason1996). Descended from original types that grazed the lower ground in and around Dartmoor it has a strong constitution developed by exposure to the prevailing severe winters and harsh conditions.

The hornless breed is of medium–large size (ewes 64 kg, rams 102 kg), deep bodied and short legged with a well-woolled head and legs (Figure 6). The white face is mottled or spotted with black or grey with matching feet. Ewes are docile, easily handled, good milkers and capable of rearing twins although they are not very prolific with a lamb crop of about 140 percent. The breed is of lustre longwool type (others in this group are the Wensleydale and Leicester Longwool). Ewes clip 7–9 kg and mature rams yield up to 15 kg. The long, curly, white wool of 25–30 cm staple length and a Bradford wool count of 36–40 (38–36 µm) are used for serge, blankets, carpets and a variety of artisanal applications (Figure 7).

Figure 6.

Greyface Dartmoor ewe in its natural habitat (Photo courtesy of Dartmoor Sheep Breeders' Association).

Figure 7.

Fleece, shorn skin, rug and knitting wool of Greyface Dartmoor sheep.

The Dartmoor Sheep Breeders' Association was established in 1909 to standardize, promote and develop the breed that was then well established in its local areas. A Flock Book was produced in 1911 (Mason, Reference Mason1996). In the early 1960s, the national flock comprised 7 000 breeding ewes, 3 000 ewe lambs and 300 rams in 140 individual flocks. The nadir of the breed was in 1985 when there were only 650 breeding ewes, 250 ewe lambs and 50 rams in 30 registered flocks but with only 15 “active” units. Considerable recovery has taken place such that in 2008 there were 1 500 breeding ewes, 700 ewe lambs and 70 rams in 200 flocks. Thus, individual flocks have become smaller and the breed is now kept throughout England, Wales and southern Scotland, and breeding stock has been exported overseas.

Considered rare in the 1990s (Mason, Reference Mason1996), the Greyface Dartmoor was among those breeds that had the highest proportion of their population “culled” in the UK 2001 FMD outbreak (Alderson, Reference Alderson2001). In 2009, however, and in part owing to many smaller flocks and their geographic dispersal, the Greyface is nonetheless not so seriously threatened as other Devon sheep and is on the RBST Watchlist as Category 5, Minority (RBST, 2009).

White Face Dartmoor

The White Face Dartmoor is sometimes known as the Widecombe after the village of that name. Its descent is from native heath sheep that grazed Dartmoor in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The modern White Face developed, however, from crossing Leicester Longwool on the original Dartmoor around 1900 (Mason, Reference Mason1996). The breed was revived in 1950 when the White Face Dartmoor Sheep Association was set up after changing market demands had resulted in a marked decline in numbers during the 1940s. A Flock Book was established in 1951. Found over a wider area in the past, enclosure of open fields and commons resulted in the breed retreating to Dartmoor where it became firmly rooted but very localized (WFCSBA, 2009).

The breed is very hardy. It grazes heather in the summer and descends to the grassy valleys in the autumn and winter. Mature rams weigh 74 kg and ewes 54 kg. The White Face has a broad white head, although there is occasionally some speckling on the face. Previously, both sexes were horned, but most ewes are now polled (Figure 8). The coarse wool has a fairly strong crimp and is moderately greasy. Average ewe fleece weight is 5.0–7.0 kg although 9 kg is not unusual. Ewes have a strong mothering instinct and a naturally high milking ability. Lambing percentage is up to 150. Carcass value is high with good conformation, meat with little fat and a good flavour and texture and dressed weights of 14–18 kg (WFDSBA, 2009).

Figure 8.

White Face Dartmoor ram and ewes at Devon County Show.

The breed is excellent for crossing in both sexes. White Face rams on the Welsh Mountain, for example, increase offspring carcass weight and quality and wool output while maintaining the vigour and hardiness of the dam line. The use of terminal sires such as the Suffolk on either pure or cross-bred White Face ewes produces a very attractive finished lamb that is lean and well muscled and ideal for the modern market.

The decline in wool prices during the 1980s and 1990s has contributed to a fall in numbers of breeding flocks. White Face Dartmoors are classed in Category 4, At Risk of the RBST, in terms of numbers but are Category 1, Critical, in terms of geographical concentration with more than 75 percent of their numbers being found within a radius of less than 12.5 km (RBST, 2010). Maintaining adequate blood lines is a problem and increased numbers of sheep and flocks would give more breeding options through increases in the gene pool. Breed characteristics meet, however, the “new” farming and environmental management needs being imposed on agriculture on Dartmoor through Environmental Sensitive Area legislation and EU Common Agriculture Policy reforms.

Devon Closewool

The Devon Closewool has existed for over 100 years and descends from the Devon Longwoolled and Exmoor Horn although it is a medium-wool polled breed (Mason, Reference Mason1996). This very hardy breed is well adapted to the exposed uplands of its native heath partly as a result of its dense fleece, which does not part easily and keeps the skin dry even in heavy rain. Its heartland is Exmoor's southern slopes and around Barnstaple in North Devon, which gives rise to its alternative name of the Barnstaple (Figure 9). This is essentially an upland sheep that lives on grass and long fodder year round and thrives where many breeds would die. There are a very few in Cornwall, Somerset and parts of Wales.

Figure 9.

Devon Closewool flock on marginal land on the slopes of Exmoor (photo courtesy of Devon Closewool Sheep Breeders' Society).

The Devon Closewool Sheep Breeders Society was founded in 1923 and a Flock Book was established at the same time (Mason, Reference Mason1996). The first registered flocks, however, date back to 1894. A dual-purpose meat and wool type, the Closewool, is a medium-sized (ewes 121–132 pounds [55–60 kg], rams 198 pounds [90 kg]) white-faced polled sheep, has good bone and stands on stout legs set apart giving it a very symmetrical appearance (Figure 10). The neck is short and thick and well set into the shoulders, and the ribs are well sprung with good depth. The back is well set up, big and wide and the leg of mutton is well let down. The dense white fleece is of medium length and staple and should contain no black fibres. Fleece weights of yearling ewes average 4 kg and those of yearling rams 6 kg with a staple length of 8–10 cm. The Bradford wool count is 48–53 (31–28 µm). The wool is popular with artisanal spinners and has a range of uses in modern manufacturing processes including hosiery, tweeds and fabrics.

Figure 10.

Devon Closewool mature ram Champion at Devon County Show 2009.

The breed is ideal for crossing in both sexes. The Devon Closewool Halfbred section was formed in the early 1980s with the most popular cross being the Bluefaced Leicester to produce the Closewool mule. Continental and Down breeds are also used on the Closewool. Cross-bred ewes and lambs thrive in variable climates and terrain and produce first-rate easily finished prime lambs. These achieve carcasses of good conformation weighing about 18 kg at 12 weeks off grass. Closewool rams lend hardiness and “substance” to other white-faced breeds. As with the pure bred, halfbreds are popular for their ability to thrive in varied climates and farming systems as they are durable, prolific (160–200 percent lambing) and excellent mothers with good milking ability, which is reflected in early offtake.

The Devon Closewool is on the RBST Watchlist, in Category 4, At Risk (RBST, 2009, 2010), mainly because 75 percent of the population is within a radius of 17.5–20.0 km. Provided epidemic disease can be avoided, the breed has a solid future as an easy care commercial sheep for harsh environments.

Exmoor Horn

Sometimes known as the Porlock, Exmoor Horns have been on Exmoor since time immemorial and have always been valued for their hardiness, ability to thrive and fleece and meat quality. This is a true dual-purpose hill breed that lives outside all year round. It has always been kept pure on the higher moorland and used for crossing on lower ground (Figure 11).

Figure 11.

Exmoor Horn ewes with Mule lamb on lower slopes of the native heath (pedigree registered Barton Town flock of Mr Philip Huxtable, Challacombe).

The Exmoor is a white-faced animal, with large horns in the male and smaller ones in the female, with cherry-coloured skin and a white fleece of medium length (Figure 12). In the 1850s, the Exmoor was small, weighing 60–75 pounds (27–34 kg) at 4–5 years of age and produced a long fleece of 4–5 pounds (1.8–2.3 kg) of good-quality wool valued, then, at 12–12½ pence per pound. The modern Exmoor is a much bigger animal with adult rams standing 77 cm at the withers and weighing 73 kg: Ewes are 65 cm at the shoulder and weigh 50 kg. The breed is prized for both lamb and mutton and continues to produce a fine quality fleece of excellent colour and good staple length with a Bradford wool count of about 40 (36–37 µm). Exmoors are among the most prolific of hill breeds (draft ewes on better ground produce even higher lambing percentages), are excellent mothers, very good milkers and produce a quality upland lamb. In performance relative to the standard Scottish Blackface, the Exmoor is superior in daily gain and equal in milk yield, percent fat, percent protein, muscularity, carcass leanness, litter size, length of mating season, lambing interval, age at sexual maturity, wool yield and wool quality.

Figure 12.

Exmoor Horn mature ram on culm grassland (pedigree registered Barton Town flock of Mr Phillip Huxtable, Challacombe).

The Exmoor Horn Sheep Breeders' Society was formed in 1906 and a Flock Book was established in 1907 (Mason, Reference Mason1996). At the first registered sale and show in 1907, 1 200 ewes were sold by auction at an average price of 42 shillings. The 1908 Flock Book records 132 members and 25 000 pure Exmoors inspected and branded. The 2007 Flock Book includes 80 flocks with some 19 000 registered ewes.

In the mid-nineteenth century the Exmoor Horn, with the Devon Longwoolled, was the progenitor of the Devon Closewool. The breed is still excellent for crossing. The Bluefaced Leicester cross produces the Exmoor Mule, which is docile and prolific in lowland areas and recognized as one of Britain's finest mules (a mule is a cross between a lowland Bluefaced Leicester ram and a pure-bred upland or hill ewe). Mules retain many Exmoor Horn qualities while exhibiting the hybrid vigour of the cross-bred. Ewes are prolific, lambing at 160–200 percent, are very good and milky mothers, suffer very little from foot problems and are long lived and cheaply maintained. The Bluefaced Leicester influence produces a long animal of good conformation and excellent fat-to-weight ratio. Lambs achieve good weight gains from grass and finish easily at 18–22 kg deadweight of 2–3 litre fatness and U/R+ conformation. Exmoor rams are excellent terminal sires on a variety of crosses as they pass on their attributes of docility and the ability to produce finished lambs from low-input systems.

Though ancient in origin, the Exmoor Horn is well adapted to modern requirements. The breed's traditional values are as relevant as ever at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Renaissance in the market for mutton is a very positive step for the breed. Recent changes to farming policy have ensured a place for Exmoor Horns in the future plans of many farming businesses. An ability to fit into environmentally sensitive and conservation landscapes and the commercial value to produce pure-bred or cross-bred lamb with added-value and market potential means that Exmoor Horns continue to deliver good value to farmers.

In spite of its undoubted popularity in its home tract and its relatively large numbers, the Exmoor Horn is at serious risk and is listed by RBST as Category 1, Critical (RBST, 2009, 2010), because 75 percent of the breed falls within a radius of less than 12.5 km.

Equines

Most native equine breeds were traditionally used as working animals. Heavy breeds ploughed the rich lowlands, whereas ponies provided agricultural power on upland farms, and were used as transport (pack) animals and for shepherding, hunting and carrying the farmer to market. Ponies also worked in deep mines underground (Wilson, Reference Wilson2009).

Devon Pack Horse

Before the end of the seventeenth century, Britain had few roads and few wheeled vehicles. Roads began to be constructed in populated parts of the country, but in remoter areas and especially in hillier regions there was little development even by the end of the eighteenth century. It was noted “in Devon and Cornwall they have few wheel carriages by reason of the steep hills, but everything is carried either on hooks on each side of the horses, which are long or short according to the nature of the burden; they have drags for drawing up the side of steep fields, …” (Cartwright, Reference Cartwright1889). The Devon Pack Horse was one of a group of similar regional equines (including the Norfolk Trotter or Roadster) developed to perform these functions. The characteristics of this literal “workhorse” were medium size (15 hands [60 inches, 152 cm] or slightly more at the withers), load-carrying capacity, an ability to walk and trot well, surefootedness, staying power, thriftiness and longevity (Staveley, Reference Staveley1910). A typical animal carried three sacks of corn, each of 220 pounds (100 kg), at a steady 5 mph (8 kph) for long periods. A string of six animals, carrying 1 800 kg in total, was controlled by one person. The person rode the horses turn about such that at some times a further 50–60 kg was added to the load of each animal (Staveley, Reference Staveley1910).

As roads became more widespread, two breeds of horse developed from Pack Horse stock. These were a heavy breed for slow goods traffic and a lighter faster type for carriages and coaches that included the Cleveland Bay and the Hackney. By the end of the nineteenth century, very few Devon Pack Horses remained. In 1910, there were but few aged mares in their original area and one 14-year-old stallion that had been exported to Australia (Staveley, Reference Staveley1910). The true breed is extinct (Mason, Reference Mason1996).

Dartmoor

An early reference to ponies on Dartmoor is in the will of the Bishop of Crediton (in central Devon close to Dartmoor) who died in 1012. During the reign of Henry I (1100–1135) a stallion was taken from Dartmoor (which like Exmoor was a royal forest) to serve royal mares. Ponies have thus lived on the moor for a very long time and developed the metabolism to prosper in that tough and uncompromising environment. The Dartmoor “breed” began to emerge from the non-descript stock on and around the moor about 1800 (Palmer, Reference Palmer1912). It was to be another 100 years, however, before the modern type was established at the end of the nineteenth century and this following injections of Exmoor blood around 1860 (Palmer, Reference Palmer1912).

The Dartmoor pony is sturdily built – but perhaps not so much as the Exmoor – and has maintained much of its adaptation to its moorland environment (Figure 13). Its strength and ability to survive harsh conditions means it is suitable for both farm work and riding. Bay, brown and black are the commonest colours but there are some greys (piebald and skewbald animals are not recognized by the breed society). Males average 225 kg and females 212 kg with withers heights of 12.2 hands (50 inches, 127 cm) in both sexes. Despite their small frame, they are strong enough to carry a full-grown human all day. The potential as children's ponies has long been recognized as they make wonderful companions, give endless fun, and compete and succeed in all spheres of competition.

Figure 13.

Dartmoor pony and foal on typical moorland ground.

The Dartmoor Pony Society (DPS) was established in 1925 and in 2009 has about 700 members. Pedigrees were recorded in the Polo Pony Stud Book as early as 1899 but were later transferred to the National Pony Society. It was not until 1977 that DPS took over pedigree recording. This is now a primary role of the society. The Dartmoor Society Supporters Group acts mainly as a fund-raising body for the benefit of the society.

Registration by inspection of non-pedigree (but possibly pure-bred) animals was terminated in 1957, but an upgrading scheme has been reintroduced. Approved non-registered mares run with a registered licensed pure-bred stallion to achieve Supplementary Register 1 (SR1) status. Approved progeny become Supplementary Register 2 (SR2). Approved progeny of SR2 mares that foal to a licensed pure-bred stallion become fully registered and may be entered in the main Stud Book. Some unregistered true-to-type ponies have Heritage Trust List (HTL) status. These remain unregistered unless they enter the upgrading scheme. HTL status has been given to The Dartmoor Heritage Trust (not connected with DPS) to allow farmers on Dartmoor to obtain payments to assist them retain unregistered but true-to-type herds on the moor.

In the early twentieth century, the market for Dartmoors extended to Cornwall where about 300 animals went every year for use in mines, on farms and by hawkers; others went to northern England as pit ponies (Palmer, Reference Palmer1912). Dartmoor ponies have been exported to all parts of the world. Local groups formed as numbers of ponies increased and established their own Stud Books. In some countries, however, ponies are registered through central government or state agencies. In most cases, the DPS in the United Kingdom is regarded as the “Mother” society. “Daughter” societies – in Australia, Belgium, Germany, Holland, Norway and Sweden – ensure that all animals, wherever bred, conform to the requirements and criteria of the Mother society. Both the United States (The American Dartmoor Pony Association) and France (Association Francaise du Poney Dartmoor with a Herd Book established in 1969) are fully independent unities. In France, the Dartmoor is mainly found in the north but there are some on the island of Corsica.

Threats to survival of Dartmoor ponies go back several centuries. In 1535, Henry VIII passed legislation to eliminate “nags of small stature” as these were assumed incapable of carrying the weight of a knight and his armour. Fines were imposed on anyone using a stallion under 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm). There have also been high points, however, as King Edward VII (1901–1910) valued Dartmoors for his polo teams and there was a huge comeback. In 1912, the outlook for the Dartmoor was “distinctly good” (Palmer, Reference Palmer1912). This ceased with the advent of First World War (1914–1918) and the breed was again severely threatened during the Second World War (1939–1945) when the moor was used – as was Exmoor – by the armed forces as a training area. Continuing mechanization throughout the later twentieth century forced the breed into another decline. In 2002, there were only 330 breeding females in the United Kingdom and 864 elsewhere in the world (Alderson, Reference Alderson2003). The breed is considered “endangered” in the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) World Watchlist with only 330 females and 61 males in the United Kingdom in 1999 (Scherf, Reference Scherf2000). On the RBST scale it is on Watchlist Category 3, Vulnerable (RBST, 2009).

Exmoor

The Exmoor pony is native to the hill country of the eponymous moor in northeast Devon and western Somerset. The breed is believed to be directly descended (as indeed are other species and breeds) from ponies that migrated from North America across the prehistoric land bridge between Alaska and Asia. Possible ancestors have been studied in fossilized remains in Alaska and these share a unique jaw type with the Exmoor together with seven molar teeth. Exmoors are the most primitive of northern European horse breeds, and their antiquity and genetic distance from other breeds have been well demonstrated (Baker, Reference Baker2008). It is claimed that there has been very little cross-breeding, which makes the Exmoor probably the purest of all native pony breeds. Its natural environment and isolation have shaped its size, characteristic hardiness, independent spirit and native intelligence. Most Exmoor ponies are now bred in studs off the moor, but the herds of semiferal free-ranging ponies that survive on low-quality moorland grazing and stay out year round are essential to maintain the breed's true qualities. When Exmoor Royal Forest was sold by the Crown in 1818, Sir Richard Acland, the last royal warden, took 30 ponies and established the famous Anchor herd, which is still in existence. Local farmers also bought ponies and were able to keep the bloodlines pure.

The winter coat of the Exmoor has two layers: One is an insulating undercoat and the other an outer coat of greasy coarse hair that is almost waterproof. This insulation is so effective that snow collects on the coats – sometimes referred to as “snow thatching” – because not enough heat is being lost to melt it (Figure 14). The body hair grows in unique patterns that facilitate shedding of water and the plentiful mane, tail and forelock protect delicate parts of the body. The Exmoor has a very large nasal cavity that provides space to warm cold air and a raised rim around the eye protects it against water and debris. The deep girth and chest allow a large digestive capacity that is important for using a large amount of rough forage in the diet.

Figure 14.

A pure-bred Exmoor pony in her winter coat showing typical “snow thatching” (Bartridge Serenade, Registration Number 277/2).

The Exmoor is extremely hardy and resistant to many equine diseases and has great powers of endurance. The small sturdy animal has ample bone and can carry heavy burdens in relation to its size. It is sure footed and has strong clean legs and feet with a smooth stride. The head is large with small ears. A “toad-eye” appearance is due to fleshy rims that serve to divert water. Bay or brown are the preferred colours although there are also duns. There are mealy patches around the eyes, on the muzzle, on the belly and insides of the thighs. Because similar markings occur in equines other than horses they are considered to be a primitive trait. White hairs in the mane or tail are not accepted in the breed standard. Adult males and females weigh 227 kg. Withers height ranges from 11.0 hands (44 inches, 112 cm) to 13.1 hands (53 inches, 135 cm), but the commonest and preferred size is 11.3–12.2 hands (47–50 inches, 119–127 cm) (Figure 15). In spite of small numbers and little morphological differentiation two types of Exmoor are recognized. The first is the Acland (the family that acquired part of the Exmoor herd at the Crown Estate disposal in 1818), which is considered to bear the closest resemblance to the original type. The second is the Withypool, which is slightly larger and generally darker and has a straighter profile.

Figure 15.

Frequency distribution if withers heights of female and male Exmoor ponies (Source: data from Baker, Reference Baker2008).

At the time of the Domesday Book in 1085 some 800 ponies roamed Exmoor. Estimates of moorland numbers over the next 900 years varied from 290 in 1819 to 970 in 1746. In 1921, there were an estimated 500 animals. The Second World War was disastrous as the moor became a training ground and ponies were shot and used for meat. By the end of the war only 50 ponies survived. Local people re-established herds but recovery was slow. A 1976 census showed only 99 ponies on the moor; there were 138 in 1990 and then 320 in 2006. Estimates of total numbers worldwide vary. By 1992, there were thought to be 800, all in the United Kingdom except for 35 in Europe (mainly Germany but also Sweden and Denmark) and 15 combined in the Falklands and Canada/United States. Of these, 270 were mares in “breeding situations” but only 100 foals were born and there were 170 geldings (EPS, 1992). In 1999, the World Watch List provided numbers of 390 breeding females and 63 males and put the Exmoor in the Endangered category (Scherf, Reference Scherf2000). The RBST has the breed in Category 2, Endangered (RBST, 2009). Canadian numbers increased from 3 in 1994 to 36 in 2004, and bloodlines of these were being shared with the United States (EPS, 2004) and total Exmoors overseas were estimated at 230. In the early twenty-first century, the Exmoor has – perhaps unfortunately –to some extent become a “lifestyle” breed. It is bred throughout Britain in small herds and as units of one or two animals. Numbers are now about 2 200 with about 160 foals born each year. Low foal numbers from the 1 000 or so mares are because less than 500 of these have foaled in the last 4 years and only about 100 have had more than two foals. Because of low numbers of stallions, a further concern is reduction in genetic diversity. The Exmoor is a truly “rare breed” with less than a third of the numbers of Scottish wildcats and only about one-seventh of the numbers of otters in the United Kingdom. Simple numbers do not, however, tell the whole story as the wild species do not have some 60 percent of their numbers as non-breeders (EPS, 2000).

The Exmoor Pony Society (EPS) was formed in 1921 to preserve and improve the traditional moorland type but a Herd Book was not established until 1961. EPS continues to be the leading proponent of the breed, and maintains information on the status of bloodlines and on overall numbers. All pedigree animals, after passing an inspection, are registered with the society and branded with the society's brand and a herd and an individual number. This applies equally to animals born off the moor and those living on it. The latter are rounded up in October of every year and the foals inspected. Colts classed as below standard are gelded.

In North America, the breed is registered in Canada by the Exmoor pony enthusiasts under the aegis of the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy. For effective global conservation, however, the North American registries must align their processes with the EPS so that animals and their genetic material may readily be exchanged. The status of Exmoors in North America is considered critical (ALBC, 2009). Exmoors were exported to Australia in the mid-nineteenth century where two sires, in particular Sir Thomas and Dennington Court, were instrumental in the formation of the Australian pony (APSB, 2009).

Pure in itself, the Exmoor has been used to improve (or alter) both the Dartmoor (Mardon, Reference Mardon1912; Palmer, Reference Palmer1912) and the New Forest Pony (Mardon, Reference Mardon1912). In the early twenty-first century, the breed is used for a variety of activities including showing, jumping, long-distance riding and driving. Exmoors make good family ponies capable of carrying an adult but amenable enough to be handled by a child. Exmoor ponies are increasingly being used as native grazers in environmentally sensitive areas to maintain or increase plant diversity (Baker, Reference Baker2008). The current roles of the Exmoor differ from its original ones but are sufficiently diverse to ensure its probable survival and its continued future use in both foreseen and unforeseen situations.