The Object

Some years ago a rectangular ceramic panel appeared at auction in London and made its way to Boston (fig. 1).¹

The object was purchased by Cornelius C. Vermeule III, who placed it on loan to the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. The technical term in English to describe the fabric of this kind of ceramic is “African Red Slip” ware—abbreviated ARS.² The term was coined by John Hayes, a scholar who has done important work in classifying these wares. In Italian, the name that is used is “terra sigillata chiara” or “light terra sigillata,” to distinguish it from “terra sigillata,” its counterpart in Italy and Gaul. The latter has a deep-red color and a high-gloss surface, while the African variety is less shiny and light orange in color.³

The object has the rectilinear shape of a lanx, which is a large-size rectangular platter commonly produced in ARS, but this object does not show other characteristics of a lanx: a deep floor, elevated borders, and a low foot. At first glance the unusual object, whose dimensions are 43.5 × 31.5 × 7.5 cm, looks like a large tile. It is mold-made and shows three figures on its upper surface. In the center stands a Roman consul, identifi ed by his senatorial costume (toga worn over a tunic and boots tied with long straps) and his consular attributes (the mappa and the scepter). The mappa was a piece of cloth wrapped into a ball. The emperor or magistrate would drop the cloth as a signal to start the games, and in late Roman iconography it became one of the principal consular attributes. The consul appears in a rectangular frame, in whose upper part are curtains that have been pulled aside. He is flanked by the apostles Peter and Paul, who are seated on thrones or high-backed chairs with footstools. The apostles wear the mantle (pallium and tunic of Greek philosophers and sandals rather than boots. Peter has a short beard and holds a book. Paul is balding and has a long beard. Both gesture with their right hands in a manner suggesting speech. A rectangular frame of vine tendrils encloses the three figures. These images were made from stamps impressed into the mold used to cast the rectangular object. Rectangular indentations around the figures probably reflect the outer contour of the stamps. The figures were then touched up with a pointed tool such as a knife or stick.

The clay of the object (henceforth “cover”) has the typical red orange color of ARS ware but is rather coarse and loose in structure. The lower right side shows a crack and substantial restoration. A picture taken before this restoration shows that two sections are missing: the lower right corner, including the left leg and the right foot of the apostle Paul, and a small section of the upper right corner (fig. 2). In spite of its matte texture, the cover should be considered African Red Slip ware, since all three figures and the vine frame are known from other works in ARS.⁴

The underside of the object is closed on three sides by broad flanges (fig. 3). One side is left open—that above the heads of the figures—but a pair of low ridges separated by a groove runs along this edge. A part of the ridges at the right has been broken away. At the left there is an indentation in the flange that corresponds to the groove between the ridges. The flanges and the ridges suggest a practical function for the object. It could have been employed to cover another rectangular object, such as a box. The flanges would have overlapped the sides of the box. The ridges on the open side suggest a kind of hinge arrangement so that the lid could have been rotated open: a wooden dowel could have been placed in the groove between the ridges and anchored in the indentation on the left side. Rectangular boxes of this general size were used since the early Roman Empire to store documents and eventually precious items such as relics.⁵

These scrinia, which were usually made of metal, ivory, and probably wood, usually had attached hinges, but because of the different nature of the material, a terracotta lid would require a different hinge arrangement.

While the figures may be known individually, this particular composition, two apostles flanking a consul, has not been recognized until now.⁶

On ARS ware the apostles Peter and Paul customarily flank a monogrammatic cross or Christ himself, but not a secular figure (fig. 4).⁷ Peter and Paul are primarily used on lanxes, but they also appear on bowls and lamps.⁸ It therefore comes as a surprise to see a con-temporary civic offi cial located between these two biblical saints. The consul in the center is slightly larger in size than the two flanking apostles (consul: 14 × 8.5 cm; Peter: 12.5 × 6 cm; Paul: 12.5 × 6 cm). At first glance this might suggest a hierarchy of importance, but in all likelihood the discrepancy in size is a result of the use of pre-existing molds or stamps.

Less well known on ARS than the princes of the apostles is the portrait of the consul on the Vermeule cover. Two identical images of this consul occur on ARS fragments in collections in Carthage (fig. 5a–b)⁹

and Holland (fig. 6).¹⁰ Both fragments also show parts of the rectangular vine frame. The Dutch fragment reveals another detail that was hard to interpret at the time of its first publication, but it can now be understood by comparison with the Vermeule cover: a curving line on the Dutch fragment must be the left side of the throne of the apostle Paul. In addition to the contour of the throne, the details of the fold of the apostle's sleeve and lower part of his pallium leave no doubt that Paul was present, and it seems certain that he would have been balanced by Peter on the other side of the consul. The composi-tion of the Vermeule cover is therefore repeated on the Dutch fragment. Details of the main figure, the consul, furthermore make it clear that the same mold was used for both. Unfortunately, the present location of the Dutch fragment is unknown, and it is therefore impossible to verify the details. In spite of much effort and good will, the fragment in the Carthage Museum was likewise unfi ndable.¹¹ Jan Willem Salomonson, however, published a photograph of both its front view (fig. 5a) and cross section (fig. 5b). Since the cross section does not show a foot or a sloping wall, it is likely that it too was a cover. Firsthand inspection would be useful to determine whether the structure of the clay was coarse or fine.¹²

Recently, another fragment showing the vine border and the lower part of the throne of Peter turned up on the art market in Germany (fig. 7a). Details of the throne, such as the form of the panther legs and the drawing of folds of cloth, as well as the different distances between St. Peter and the border, make it clear that the fragment comes from a mold similar but not identical to that of the Vermeule cover. Since the object's cross section (fig. 7b) does not show a foot, it is clear that again in this case the fragment was not part of a lanx. The texture of the clay is coarser than that of ARS bowls and thus compares well with the Vermeule cover.¹³

Identifying the Consul

The consul on the ARS cover seems to represent the same person shown on a consular mold and plaque recently published by Jeffrey Spier (figs. 8 and 9).¹⁴

These two pieces were also acquired by Cornelius C. Vermeule III and placed on loan to the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. In addition to a close visual resemblance, the consul has dimensions that are similar, though not identical, to those of the consul on the Vermeule cover. As will be seen, however, the discrepancy can be explained through shrinkage in the process of manufacturing. There is also a difference in size between the consular mold and the impression, which is also due to shrinkage. This is hard to measure since the two pieces are complementary parts: the mold shows the upper part and the impression the lower part of the consul with only a small area of overlap. An additional impression, apparently taken from the same mold, shows the upper part of the consul's body. This second impression, which does not join the Vermeule impression (fig. 8), is in the collection of the Archäologische Staatssammlung in Munich (fig. 10).¹⁵

Although the image of the consul in the mold is visibly the same as on the Vermeule cover, there are differences in execution as well as size. The workmanship of the mold and plaque is of high quality and the material consists of very fine clay. Spier argued, as Salomonson before him in other cases, that the original consular plaque, presumably made of ivory or bone, was directly impressed in the clay to create a mold.¹⁶

It should be noted that it is exceptional to find a mold made out of the same orange-red material as the impression. Most of the surviving molds of lanxes and lamps are made of a white substance: stucco or plaster. Only a few other ARS molds are known to consist of the same material as the final products they produced.¹⁷

The more refined ARS pieces (figs. 8–10) show the consul in an architectural setting, a feature that has been largely eliminated on the cover. In the mold, the lintel above the consul's head shows an inscription, which Spier reads as “Anici(us) Aucheni(us) Bassus, v(ir) c(larissisimus).”¹⁸

On the Munich piece (fig. 10), which was published some decades ago, the inscription is less clear and had been read dif-ferently, but Spier undoubtedly gives the correct reading. Three men of this name are known from inscriptions and literary documents: the first was prefect of the city of Rome in 382 and the latter two were both consuls in the west—one in 408 and the other in 431. The names and dates indicate that they were closely related and probably represent three generations: grandfather, father, and son.¹⁹ Spier identifi ed the image on the mold as the western consul of 408. His argument is based on an interesting detail that appears not only on the Vermeule mold and the plaque in Munich, but also on the Vermeule cover. In his left hand the consul holds a scepter, the symbol of imperial power, which is topped by three busts. They represent three emperors (augusti) who ruled jointly. During the consulship of the later Bassus there were only two emperors, Valentinian III in the west and Theodosius II in the east. But in the first part of the year 408 three rulers shared power: Honorius was emperor in the west, and in the east both Arcadius and his young son Theodosius II had the title of augustus, until Arcadius died on 1 May 408. Thus, the consular plaque was made in the beginning of 408, presumably, as Alan Cameron and Jeffrey Spier pointed out, on the occasion of the games that inaugurated Bassus's consulship.²⁰

As noted above, the consular image on the Vermeule cover is very similar to that in the high-quality mold, but it is smaller and more roughly executed. The fabric of the cover may have contributed to the coarser effect. The detail of the three busts on the scepter, however, appears on both pieces but is more blurred on the cover. Salomonson only distinguished two busts of emperors when he published the fragment in Carthage (fig. 5a–b),²¹

but a close examination of the identical consul on the Vermeule cover favors three.

To investigate the hypothesis that the difference in size between the consular images reflects shrinkage of the clay in the process of recasting and remolding the same image, a comparison was made between the measurements of various details of the figures on the mold (fig. 8), the Munich plaque (fig. 10), and the cover (fig. 1). First, the consul on the mold was compared to the consul on the cover. A total of twelve measurements were taken from the same points on the two objects: from the left to the right side of the outer border, from the two sides within the filets, from the emperors’ heads to the curtain, from curtain to curtain, from the top of the consul's head to his chin, from the consul's head to his shoulder, and so on. The measurements showed that the dimensions of the two images are consistent on both objects, but that the cover has the most shrinkage. The second comparison between the mold and the plaque shows much less, and the third comparison between the plaque and the cover reveals the least amount of shrinkage.

As discussed above, the images on the cover lack the precision of detail seen in the consular plaques, which also supports the idea that the cover was the result of a second (or third) generation of molding. Shrinkage and loss of detail occurred in every phase (fig. 11).

Dating the Cover

While it can be established that the consular plaque was issued in the first months of Bassus's consulship in 408, it is more difficult to determine the exact date of the Vermeule cover. It is conceivable that the molds could have lingered in the workshop for several years. There is another argument, however, that can be used for dating the cover, which is linked to the specific composition of the three figures. As pointed out above, ARS images of Peter and Paul tend to flank a monogrammatic cross. Placing the consul in a central position between the two major saints of Rome and Christianity is a remarkable intertwining of religious and secular imagery.²²

This deviation from standard iconographic practice and the involvement of Anicius Auchenius Bassus makes sense in a particular political and ideological context, one that was of relatively short duration.

From the early fourth century onward, the Roman provinces of Africa had been involved in a violent conflict between two Christian factions: the Catholics and Donatists.²³

The factors underlying this schism, in which national and social elements played a role, are complex and still debated. In general, the Donatist churches were more strongly represented in rural areas, while the Catholics were more identifi ed with the upper classes, which dominated the cities and owned extensive estates. Occasionally the imperial authorities tried to resolve the conflicts, but their half-hearted measures were only sporadically enforced. Governors and local magistrates (many of them still pagan) seemed unwilling to impose unpopular rulings, and landowners were reluctant to have their Donatist peasants (and their crops) disturbed by punitive measures.

It is estimated that for most of the fourth century the Donatists, who considered themselves the legitimate church of the martyrs, outnumbered the Catholics. This situation began to change in the late 390s, largely through the activities of Augustine and his circle. In spite of being outnumbered, they were able to coordinate the Catholic cause effectively. Moreover the political situation in North Africa had become more alarming from a Roman point of view, and the Catholics were capable of taking advantage of the crisis. Local militia commanders had revolted against Roman rule and received support from peasants allied with the Donatist cause and from some of the Donatist leaders. Gildo, a rich landowner with vast estates and military forces at his disposition, led a particularly dangerous uprising in 397/98, which, if successful, could have led to the secession of North Africa from the western Empire. His revolt managed to obstruct the annona, the grain shipments to Rome, in that year.²⁴

Because of the invasions of the western provinces by German tribes, Italy had become increasingly dependent on Africa, both as a source of food and as a place of refuge. These factors led the Roman administration to take the ecclesiastical struggle in Africa more seriously and deal with the situation more decisively.

A program of mediation and intervention culminated in the formation of an imperial commission, which summoned a conference (collatio) at Carthage in 411 to establish religious unity. As a result the Donatist cause was condemned and the subsequent laws were more strictly enforced. These policies broke the powerful movement and brought the schism to a virtual end. The outcome of the conference was a personal victory for Augustine and his friends.

Augustine may have had a personal connection with Anicius Auchenius Bassus, the consul of 408. The latter wrote an epitaph for the tomb of Monica, Augustine's mother who died in Ostia, where the Anicii had estates.²⁵

In addition, four edicts from the period of Bassus's consulship show how the imperial administration tried to inject its authority into the Donatist conflict.²⁶

The composition of the Vermeule scrinium cover, blending so visibly Roman ecclesiastical and secular authority, reflects this intervention by high officials of the state in the affairs of the African churches. The cover is a vivid piece of propaganda in which the apostles Peter and Paul appear as magistrates, upholding contemporary Roman order just as Anicius Auchenius Bassus does. Although the specific function of the Vermeule cover is unknown, its imagery has an evident historical and political con-text. Whether or not the Vermeule cover dates from precisely the year 408, it is clear that it could not be much later than the year 411, when the Donatist conflict, which had divided the African churches for almost a century, fell into the background.²⁷

The conference at Carthage in 411 resulted in harsh anti-Donatist legislation, which banned the church's meetings and ordered confiscation of its property. The legislation was confirmed by subsequent imperial edicts and was vigorously implemented by the authorities, bringing the conflict to a virtual end in political terms.²⁸