WAYS TO PRESERVE FOODFootnote ⁶

Depending on the type of food being preserved, there are many food preservation methods that can be used:

• – Fruits and vegetables can be preserved naturally (such as being kept in its own juice) through the process of heat sterilization. This method is very delicate and must be done carefully, since fruits and vegetables easily acidify.

• – Fruits and vegetables can be kept in sugar or honey. Preparing syrup (cooked sugar) can preserve fruits, as well as making jam, compotes or jelly.

• – Pickling and salting are also methods of food preservation since vinegar and salt act as antiseptics. This method is most commonly used with vegetables, fruits, olives, meats and fish. The food would be bottled in vinegar or covered in salt (salt-curing).

• – Dehydrating food is another preservation technique. Dehydration is commonly used with vegetables, meat and fish.

• – Smoking food can preserve it, too. Smoke produces an antiseptic effect, which prevents the proliferation of microorganisms due to the substances in the smoke (phenol, methyl alcohol and acetone). This method is used to preserve meat and fish.

• – Soaking food in alcohol can preserve it. Fruits are a good example of this technique, especially the famous and extraordinary grapes turned into (eau-de-vie).

• – Preservation by fermentation is a common method. Yogurt is a good example of fermentation.

• – Food can be preserved by refrigeration and by freezing. The Romans introduced the freezing method, which is ideal for nearly every kind of food.

• – And finally, in the particular case of cereals, they can be preserved in silos, tanks originally underground, dry and dark due to lack of oxygen, which allows the preservation of the grain for a long time.Footnote ⁷ Also we must bear in mind and don't forget that from the flour of many grains bread is made, basic food of the traditional diet of many people since prehistory. Baking techniques, which are fairly rudimentary at first, reaching a high degree of sophistication by the hand of Hispano-Arabic culture, in whose ovens were baked thousands of breads and sweets made from refined flour, which were parte of the rich cuisine of this culture.Footnote ⁸

These are some of the different techniques that man has discovered and applied throughout history; some methods are more basic, while others are more elaborated.

The different methods of fruit preservation will be discussed in further detail in this paper.Footnote ⁹

THE AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS

As mentioned earlier, the works studied for this paper are agronomic Andalusian works, along with those by Columela and Alonso de Herrera. The latter two treatises have been included in order to analyze the Roman techniques which passed to the Arab culture and from this one to the Renaissance, Columela's workFootnote ¹⁰ helps us to know the status of work at the beginning of our era, and so Alonso Herrera's work helps us to see how these techniques had evolved by the end of the 15^th century and the beginning of the 16^th. Between both of them are placed the Andalusian agronomists' works, which we are going to study in chronological order.

First of all and to provide the reader with the authors and their works within a time-line to coordinate we supplement this with some biographical data. The biographies have the same order (1 to 6) followed by the descriptions, this way, the changes undergone by those techniques of food preservation over time can be observed easily.

1. 1. Lucio Junio Moderato ColumelaFootnote ¹¹ was born in Cadiz, in the first century. He was a contemporary of Seneca, whom he knew. He was well versed in philosophy and poetry. Agriculture, however, was the field in which he excelled. Columela moved from Cadiz to Rome where he became a renowned figure and established close relations with the Roman upper class. From Rome, he travelled to Asia by route of Greek, Syrian and Persian lands.

   Columela's fame stemmed from his two main scientific works: Res Rustica and Liber de Arboribus. The former provides a large number of articles dedicated to food preservation especially in the twelfth book of Res Rustica.

   Res Rustica Footnote ¹² is composed of twelve books that deal with soil related issues, land cultivation, vines and trees, livestock, birds, fish, bees, as well as the duties of a farmer and his wife. The latter section of the book is composed of fifty-seven chapters, in which Columela describes the techniques of food preservation, along with the places where provisions should be stored and in what type of container. He also details how to make vinegars, brine, vegetable dressings, and how to prepare pickles. Additionally, Columela explains how to dry fruits and make cheese and olive oil. Finally, he describes the different processes to make and preserve wine and must, and to extract olive oil.

2. 2. Abū al-JayrFootnote ¹³ was born in Seville, although very little is known about his life. A few details can be found in his own works and others can be gathered from references made in the works of other agronomists. Abū al-Jayr was a contemporary of al-Muʿtamid, King of Seville, i.e., lived between the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Unfortunately, little more can be added to his biography. His agronomical workFootnote ¹⁴ includes the main guidelines for running a farm and the methods of planting both fruit and ornamental trees and shrubs. Abū al-Jayr also writes about pruning and grafting a vineyard and cultivating vegetables and legumes. The second part of his book is dedicated to the preservation and storage of fruits and vegetables, as well as the oil purification and the olive marinade.

3. 3. Ibn BaṣṣālFootnote ¹⁵ was born in Toledo, although he settled in either Cordoba or Seville after Christians threatened his hometown. Little is known about Ibn Baṣṣāl, although, according to the references by ʿUmdat al-ṭabīb,Footnote ¹⁶ he probably lived for a period of time during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. In the reference by ʿUmdat al-ṭabīb, it appears that Ibn Baṣṣāl also travelled to Sicily, Egypt and perhaps Mecca. Ibn Baṣṣāl's workFootnote ¹⁷ is divided into sixteen chapters about different types of water, distinguishing the right soil for any given crop, using manure, working on a farm, and planting, grafting pruning and trees. Additionally, he writes about growing herbs, spices, vegetables and bulbous plants. In the last chapter Ibn Baṣṣāl describes the different methods of fruit preservation (nuts, raisins, etc.).

4. 4. Ibn al-ʿAwwāmFootnote ¹⁸ is the best renowned Andalusian agronomist as his work is the most detailed and comprehensive of those that has been preserved. Like his predecessors, very little is known about his life, save for his residence in Seville in the twelfth century and his agronomical practice in “El Aljarafe”. Ibn al-ʿAwwām most famous agronomic workFootnote ¹⁹ consists of thirty-five chapters, although the last chapter dedicated to dogs, has not been preserved. The structure of this work follows the same general format and includes the same general material as that of the others: describing different types of soil, arranging orchards and vegetable gardens, planting, pruning and grafting trees, sowing grains, vegetables, herbs and plants, and organizing farm houses. In chapter sixteen, Ibn al-ʿAwwām describes the best housekeeping methods and the different ways of preserving fish and the fresh harvested fruit and vegetables.

5. 5. Ibn LuyūnFootnote ²⁰ was born in Almeria, in 1282 and succumbed to a plague in 1349. Well educated, Ibn Luyūn practiced law and was well versed in the world of philosophy, mathematics and literature. His good relationship with his contemporaries prompted Ibn Luyūn to travel to Northern Africa and farther East. His agronomic workFootnote ²¹ is written in the form of an ‘urŷūza’, a long poem that is intended for the memorization of scientific principles that typically do not contain any sort of lyrical or rhetorical qualities. Ibn Luyūn's work is divided into 175 chapters, and each one is devoted to a specific agronomic field. Among those fields discussed are the choice of the best soil and water for harvest, different plantation methods, the pruning and grafting of trees and the set-up of a farm. Chapters ninety-two and one hundred and seven are devoted to the preparation of preserved fruits, vinegar, marinated olives and pressed oil.

6. 6. Gabriel Alonso de HerreraFootnote ²² serves as the endpoint of this brief agricultural history. Born in Toledo in 1470, Alonso de Herrera was a chaplain of Cardinal Cisneros, who financed his agronomical research and bookFootnote ²³ first published in 1513. He lived in Toledo until his death in 1539. Gabriel Alonso de Herrera's work was supposedly distributed for free among the farmers in the locality in order to train them in agronomic fields that would ideally increase their profits. The book was originally written in old Castilian, but it was later translated into Latin. The work consists of six books that provide references to fruit and vegetable preservation. The first book details the basics about soil, seasons to plough and sow, the task of weeding, reaping and threshing, and the growth of herbs. The second book focuses on the cultivation of vines, harvests, cellars, and the extraction and preservation of wine and vinegar. The third book is devoted to planting, cultivating and caring for trees and the gathering and preservation of fruits. The forth book is about orchards and how to plant and sow vegetables and aromatic plants. The fifth book describes the animals needed on a farm and their needs and treatments. The final book outlines the different farm responsibilities that depend on the condition of the soil and the climate in each month of the year.

The fruit preservation recipes were extracted from all of these works. Descriptions made by each of these authors in the mentioned works about the different fruits and their respective techniques of preservation are listed below:

FRUIT PRESERVATION TECHNIQUESFootnote ²⁴: QUINCES,Footnote ²⁵ APPLES,Footnote ²⁶ POMEGRANATES,Footnote ²⁷ FIGS,Footnote ²⁸ GRAPESFootnote ²⁹ AND PEARSFootnote ³⁰

Quinces are the most well preserved fruit since they are too hard, astringent and sour to be eaten raw. Additionally, the quince's skin makes it easy to preserve. There are many recipes of quinces preservation in the works mentioned above.

1. 1. “In his twelfth book,Footnote ³¹ Columela details how some preserve quinces by wrapping them in fig leaves and leaving them in clay pots kneaded with ‘alpechín’.Footnote ³² Once the clay dries, the quinces are stored in a cool, dry place. Others put the quinces on new plates and bury them separately in fresh gypsum. Columela, however, claims the best and safest way to preserve quinces is to harvest them at peak ripeness, under a serene sky and a waning moon. Then the quinces must be cleaned and jarred separately in a wide-rimmed jar. Once the jar is completely full, the quinces should be compressed with criss-crossed wicker sticks so they do not emerge to the surface while the jar is filled with pure honey. Columela said that by following this method, the quinces are not only preserved, but also have a sweet taste of liquor, called melomeli,Footnote ³³ which can be used as a medicine to combat fever. Additionally, Columela stressed that to be preserved with honey, fruits must be perfectly ripe. If not, they are too hard to consume.

   With regard to the pulp, Columela explains this recipeFootnote ³⁴: one urna Footnote ³⁵ of AmineoFootnote ³⁶ must from a vine grape tied to the tree and twenty-three large and peeled quinces should be put into a clay or tin pot along with sweet pomegranates called cartaginesas and blackcurrants called rowan.Footnote ³⁷ These fruits should not be very ripe. The fruits have to be cooked and stirred until melted into syrup. When only the syrup remains, it must be cooled and strained. Then, the syrup should be simmered over coals until it thickens like feces. Before it is removed from the heat, tree heminas Footnote ³⁸ of ground sumac should be stirred into the syrup, making it smooth. Once cold, the syrup must be put in a new pot, covered with gypsum and kept on a shelf to avoid mold”.

2. 2. “Abū al-Jayr's method of quinces preservationFootnote ³⁹ is harvesting the quinces by hand once they are ripe so the fruit does not touch the ground and spoil. Then the quinces must be layered in a jar, whose bottom is covered with a piece of coarse linen. Once filled, the jar should be covered with a piece of linen, mud and clay and left in a cool room. They should be checked every month in order to clean out the rotten fruit. Abū al-Jayr also says it is possible to wrap each quince in separate linen and cover them in mud. Then, the pieces of fruit should be hung to dry in the shade. Additionally, quinces can be preserved by dehydration in a cool and dark place. Placing the quinces in oak shavings, barley straw, wine or honey, and then covering the fruit in plaster or burying it in the sand used to be a common practice, however it spoils the taste of the fruit. Quinces can also be covered with clay, buried in sand or barley, or, while still on the tree, the quinces can be covered with clay so they are protected from rain, frost, hail and birds”.

3. 3. “Ibn Baṣṣāl did not provide any quinces preservation recipes”.

4. 4. “In the sixteenth chapterFootnote ⁴⁰ of his book, Ibn al-ʿAwwām describes the process of quinces preservation.Footnote ⁴¹ He details that the ripe fruit with stalks must be collected carefully in order to avoid bruises. After the quinces have been gathered, they must be covered with walnut or fig leaves or a piece of coarse linen and bound with thread. Then the fruit should be covered in mud or plaster and hung in a cool, shady place and later kept in a room without other fruits, as the scent of the quinces is strong and would spoils them. Once the fruit is covered in mud, it can also be buried in barley. In order to eat the quinces, they must be immersed in water to remove the mud. The quinces can also be rolled in fig leaves and smeared with mud and clay. When dry in the shade, the fruit should be kept in a room with no other fruit since the scent of the quince can spoil other fruit”.

5. 5. “In the 106^th chapter, Ibn Luyūn writes that, in order to be preserved, quincesFootnote ⁴² must be not be bruised and must be put in holes whose bases are covered in sand, cane leaves or linen. Quinces could also be put in pots covered with flax's fluff, but must be checked monthly to prevent the occurrence of spoilt fruits”.

6. 6. “Gabriel Alonso de Herrera devoted a wide epigraph in chapter thirtyFootnote ⁴³ to the preservation of quinces.Footnote ⁴⁴ He starts by saying that the fruit should be collected only when ripe and while the moon is waning, since the fruit last longer this way. Care should be taken that each piece of fruit is kept with its stem, then, the fluff that covers it should be cleaned properly with a cloth, and put in a new earthenware jar until it is full, and then topped with a heavy object to prevent the quinces from floating while they are covered pure clear honey. The lids of the jars should be covered with mud and stored. The author adds that the resulting honey can be used as a remedy for the sick. Alonso de Herrera wrote another recipe in which he said that quinces should be stored in barley and rye, or wrapped in fig leaves, or covered with mud and kept in a cold place, away from smoke and air because they would cause spoilage. Or they can also be stored in well-covered wooden boxes so that contact with air is avoided. Special care should be taken not to mix them with other fruits because those fruits would decay. The quinces could also be stored in wine or in must (grape juice), which would provide them with a gentle scent. The fruit could also be stored among clothes, as they can give the quinces a light scent and keep them safe from moths. Another technique of quinces preservation consists of peeling the fruit, removing the seeds, cutting each one into four pieces and soaking them in water (rain water or water from a well or a spring) that should be changed daily. The fruit should be soaked until it softens and should be cooked slightly in water and dried in the shade on a clean cloth. Once dried, the fruit should be cooked again with sugar or quality honey, then cooled and put in a new pot and covered in sugar or honey. To make quince jelly, Alonso de Herrera suggests peeling and dicing the fruit, cooking them in water until they soften. Then, the fruit should be extracted from the water and mashed into little pieces with a stone mortar and strained with a thin sieve in order to avoid bits. Later, the mixture should be boiled in quality honey and poured in boxes to cool. Later in this chapter, a nobler and simpler recipe for quinces can be found. The quince should be cut open and the insides should be taken out. Then the fruit should be mashed in a mortar, pressed, drained of all juice and strained. Afterwards, the juice must be boiled in sugar in order to thicken, and if necessary alquitira Footnote ⁴⁵ can be added. It would be best if the liquid were diluted in rose water or in orange blossom water. Also, it is possible to add a little bit of musk or saffron (for color) or sticks of cinnamon, which should be removed when cooked. Eventually, the jam should be poured into glass jars”.

Additionally, quinces can be preserved by wrapping them in fig or walnut leaves and covered in mud, burying them in dry gypsum, macerating them in wine or honey, covering them with a piece of coarse linen and storing them in tightly closed jars. They can also be preserved by simply hanging the fruits by their stems in a cold, dark place, submerged between oak shavings or a straw of barley or rye. The fruit can also be boiled in sugar or honey, wrapped in clay containers in a tree or tucked in holes and covered with down linen, stored between clothes, to give them a light fragrance and keep away the moths.

As can be seen, the technique of fruit preservation of wrapping the quinces with fig or walnut leaves, covering with clay and then let them drying to be consumed later is a procedure which has been already exposed by Columela and followed by Ibn al-ʿAwwām and Abū al-Jayr several centuries later, which was included by Alonso Herrera in his work; all of them follow the same procedure, emphasizing the fact that the quinces must be stored in a dry, cool place after covered in clay and dried. This technique of preservation must have been very effective and so it has been maintained throughout sixteen centuries.

As for the technique to preserve quinces one by one, covered in gypsum it was only collected by Columela and Abū al-Jayr, not going beyond; this process takes a long time and takes up much space in the rooms set in the houses to store preserved food, which must have been a serious inconvenience; that's why it was not a common practice. Quinces preserved in honey are found in Columela, Abū al-Jayr and Alonso de Herrera’ works but only the first and last of them provide a complete description of the process to follow, and list the benefits of the resultant honey to the sick.

Remarkably, the other Andalusian authors didn't make any reference to this technique since honey is one of their favourite products in Arabic cooking, especially in pastry making. However, some methods are found only in Andalusian works, for instance, quince preservation by putting the quinces into earthenware pots opened once a month to remove the spoiled pieces, or hanging them by their stalks in dry, cool places. Abū al-Jayr and Alonso de Herrera suggest to preserve the quinces in wine, given to it a pleasant aroma.

As for other techniques, like how to make quince jelly – still very popular in Andalusian cooking, either homemade or store-bought, available at any supermarket – are not collected by the Andalusian authors but exclusively by Columela and Alonso de Herrera. We do not understand very well the reason why this technique is not described in any of the Andalusian works, as the tradition already exists in the Iberian Peninsula since pre-Islamic, and recovers, as we see, with Alonso de Herrera. However, with one difference: Columela cooks the quinces in wine and Alonso de Herrera does it in water and then adds honey.

Alonso de Herrera has, however, the most sophisticated recipe, without any previous tradition, which shall be the basis for the present jams, with fruit and sugar, sometimes flavored. Herrera take a crucial step forward in the improvement of quinces preservation, and also, as we will see later, of other fruits.

The apple is other fruit that commonly appears in all of the works mentioned for this study.

1. 1. “In Columela's twelfth bookFootnote ⁴⁶ (same chapter in which he describes quinces), he explains that the method for preserving apples is the same that is used to preserve quinces. The apples must be carefully collected at peak ripeness, under a serene sky and a waning moon. Then, after cleaning the apples, they should be put into wide-rimmed jars. Once the jar is full, the apples should be compressed with crossed wicker sticks, so the fruit does not float in the jar”.

2. 2. “Abū al-Jayr also describes the process of preservation of apples, which is based on his model of preserving quinces.Footnote ⁴⁷ The ripe apples must be collected by hand so the fruit does not touch the ground and spoil. Then the apples must be layered in a jar, whose bottom is covered with a piece of coarse linen. Once filled, the jar should be covered with a piece of linen, mud and clay, and left in a cool room. They should be checked every month in order to clean out the rotten fruit. Abū al-Jayr also says it is possible to wrap the each apple in separate linens and cover them in mud. Then, the pieces of fruit should be hung to dry in the shade. Additionally, apples can be preserved by dehydration in a cool and dark place”.

3. 3. “In the sixteenth chapter of his book, Ibn Baṣṣāl describes the main farming methods for fruits preservation and prevention of fruit spoilage. He recommendsFootnote ⁴⁸ leaving the apples on the tree until they ripen, which is usually around October. Then the apples should be carefully collected and spread side by side over a bed of straw flax. The apples should be covered with another layer of flax straw. This technique can be repeated by layering more apples on top of the second bed of flax straw. The apples should be stored in a cool room. With this method, Ibn Baṣṣāl claims the apples will be preserved until June, but the fruit must be check monthly in order to dispose of the rotten apples. The room must be a cool one”.

4. 4. “Ibn al-ʿAwwām's method of preserving apples is the same as that of quinces.Footnote ⁴⁹ He details that the ripe fruit with stalks must be collected carefully in order to avoid bruises. After the apples have been gathered, they must be wrapped in a piece of coarse linen and bound with thread. Then the fruit should be covered in mud or plaster and hung in a cool, shady place. Later the fruit should be kept in a room without other fruits, as not to spoil other fruits. Once the fruit is covered in mud, it can also be buried in barley”.

5. 5. “Ibn Luyūn writes about the preservation of apples in the same chapter as the preservation of quinces,Footnote ⁵⁰ and he uses the same preservation method for both fruits. In order to be preserved, apples must be not be bruised and must be put in holes whose bases are covered in sand, cane leaves or linen. The apples could also be put in covered pots, but must be checked monthly to prevent the fruit from spoiling”.

6. 6. “Gabriel Alonso de Herrera writes about apple trees in chapter thirty-firstFootnote ⁵¹ and details many methods to preserving their fruits.Footnote ⁵² He writes that apples that ripen in the summer do not last long. Therefore, they should be collected before they are completely ripe. Similarly, winter apples should be collected before they ripen, but not the green ones. Both summer and winter apples can be preserved like the quinces, by being buried in barley, rye or straw, or covered in gypsum. Winter apples can be stored simply collecting them and coating their stalks with boiling pitch and hanging them in a high chamber among walnut leaves with their stems up.

   Alonso de Herrera also describes how to make wine and vinegar from apples. The former, called cider or cidra, is made from very ripe and sweet apples that are smashed, pressed and stored in pots. The cider has a nice fragrance, quenches thirst and helps digestion. The latter is made from premature apples, collected and stored for four or five days. Then the apples are put in water in a covered clay pot. The resulting vinegar will drip from the bottom of the clay pot”.

The same method is used for apples and quinces since their peels and pulp share common characteristics. Therefore, none of these works include particular recipes or specific techniques on how to preserve apples. The real innovation is the way in which Alonso Herrera goes into detail in his descriptions of cider and apple vinegar production. The Herrera's work, therefore, constitutes a significant step forward and a change in the process of preservation by joining new methods to the traditional popular ones which have not been collected yet in the others studied works.

Both new techniques of preservation – cider mostly but also apple vinegar – will become an important industry in areas where apples are produced, both in the Iberian Peninsula and the rest of Europe.

Third we will study the techniques of conservation of pomegranates. The thick peel of pomegranates makes them the perfect fruit to be preserved for a long time. Moreover, their delicious red grains are a feast for the senses, thanks to its taste and its bright color.

1. 1. “Columela devotes the entirety of chapter forty-four of his twelfth book to several methods of pomegranates preservation.Footnote ⁵³ Twisting its peduncles and leaving the fruit bound to the branches so they do not move can conserve the fruit. Then, the tree must be wrapped in nets so the ravens, crows and other birds cannot peck the tree or fruit. Covering them in clay whilst they hang on the branches of the tree could also protect the pomegranates. Additionally, the fruit could be individually wrapped in little pots of clay knead with straw, and then covered with a thick layer of mud that should be bound to the thicker branches of the tree so the fruit will not sway in the wind. Columela considers the weather to be a very important factor in this process of preservation. A calm day without any dew is ideal. Also, burying pomegranates in little holes in dry earth, and separating the fruit with elderberry sprigs four centimeters from each other can also preserve pomegranates. The hole should be covered with mud, straw and soil. This same process can be conducted with clay pots instead of holes in the ground. Following the methods of Magon, Columela claims that soaking pomegranates in heated seawater until their color fades is another preservation method. Once the pomegranate loses its color, it should be dried in the sun for three days and hung in a cool place. The night before consumption, the pomegranate should be soaked in water. According to Columela, Magon also recommends squeezing the fruit into a clay pot whose bottom is covered with poplar or oak sawdust, and then layering the fruit and sawdust until they reach the rim. Finally, the pot's lid should be covered with a thick layer of mud”.

2. 2. “Abū al-Jayr devotes just a few lines in his book to pomegranates preservation.Footnote ⁵⁴ He recommends digging holes and layering pomegranates and mint water, which should be changed every ten days, until the hole is full. The top should be filled with dry soil, and later, the fruits should be bound with thread and hung in a cool place”.

3. 3. “Ibn Baṣṣāl applied the same technique for pomegranates as he did for apples.Footnote ⁵⁵ The ripe pomegranates should be collected and spread out on beds of straw. Nothing should be put between the layers, however a layer of gypsum should cover the top of the pomegranates to protect them. The fruit should be checked once a month in order to remove the rotten pomegranates. Another method to preserve pomegranate includes digging a hole in the soil and alternately layering fruit and soil until the hole is full. The top of the hole should be covered with the orchard soil”.

4. 4. “Ibn al-ʿAwwām presents several recipes to preserve pomegranates.Footnote ⁵⁶ In order to be dried and stored the pomegranates should be collected before them ripe. They should be bound with thread and hung individually by their stems in a cold place to avoid touching each other or the walls. He adds that if desired and before being hung the pomegranates could be buried in barley or wheat straw until the outside peel has dried out. Then, the fruit must be hung as mentioned above. Another technique of pomegranates preservation is submerging them in boiling water and leaving them in there until the water cools down. Then the fruit should be bound with threads or wrapping them in clothes, and hung thereafter. He adds that the fruit would last longer if, before being hung, the tops and bottoms of the fruit were covered with hot melted pitch or soaked in brine”.

5. 5. “Ibn Luyūn's method of preserving pomegranatesFootnote ⁵⁷ is the same as that of preserving quinces and apples. The pomegranates should be preserved from the blows to collect them and should be carefully placed in holes whose bases are covered in can leaves or soil, and then covered with flax's fluff. The pomegranates could also be put in covered pots, but must be checked monthly to prevent the fruit from spoiling”.

6. 6. “In chapter twenty-sixFootnote ⁵⁸ of his book, Gabriel Alonso de Herrera writes about pomegranate trees and how to preserve its fruit. Twisting its peduncles and leaving the fruit bound to the branches wrapped in nets so the ravens, crows and other birds cannot peck the tree or fruit. Covering them in clay whilst they hang on the branches of the tree could also protect the pomegranates. Weather is an important factor in this process of preservation; a calm day without any dew is ideal. Additionally, by soaking the peel in boiling saltwater until the colour fades is another method of preservation. After the peel fades, the fruit must be hung for three days in the sun and must not be exposed to water. Before consumption, the fruit should be hung in a cool place and soaked in fresh water. Additionally, covering the stems with boiling pitch, individually hanging the fruit or putting them separately into straw or barley or in a pot so the fruit does not touch can preserve the fruit”.

The pomegranate's peel is so thick that there are very little ways to preserve them. One efficient method is to twist their stem on the tree and cover the tree with nets to prevent birds to damage the fruit. Also, the fruit can be stored in holes or pots, and then they must be hung by their stem covered in pitch, soaking them in spring or saltwater and left to dry in the sun or on beds of straw.

It is amazing to find exactly the same recipe in Columela and Alonso de Herrera – not found at none of the Andalusian works –, and it seems like Alonso de Herrera had copied from Columela the whole process to follow. There are two techniques: either leaving the quinces hanging down from the tree – once the stalks are twisted – or hanging down from the tree wrapped with straw and covered with mud. Despite these techniques being so simple and natural they are not collected by the Muslims' works of al-Andalus, even if they did know perfectly Columela's work. Ibn al-ʿAwwām described the closest technique to the above mentioned except for the fact that he hangs them by their stalks in a cold place, once gathered from the trees.

Another very polished technique showed by Columela and Alonso Herrera is to put the pomegranates into salted boiling water and later to dry them by hanging down in a cold place. Of all the Andalusian works, only Ibn al-ʿAwwām describes something alike but he failed to specify that the water must be salted.

However we can find in nearly all the treatises the technique of keeping the pomegranates inside pits dug into sandy terrain in order this sand can absorb up moisture from the fruits until dried, or burying the pomegranates with straw to dry the fruits prior to hanging them down by their stalks in a cold dry place. Moreover, Columela, Ibn Luyūn and Alonso de Herrera shared the same technique: preserving the pomegranates into earthenware jars filled with alternating layers of fruits and sawdust.

Columela shows – and anyone but him – a special case in which the pomegranates are set into a little clay jar and placed separately while still hanging down from their tree. Can we imagine a pomegranate tree which fruits are hung down wrapped in a jar as a Christmas ornament? This is a unique suggestion, and moreover, too complicated to be followed. That's why techniques which treat the fruit separately are less common, most exceptional ones.

One of the most valuable fruits is the fig, to which most pages in the agronomist works are dedicated.

1. 1. “Columela aptly named the fifteenth chapter of his twelfth book ‘How to dry figs’.Footnote ⁵⁹ It starts by a description of how to collect the fruits, neither unripe nor overripe. Once selected, they should be laid in a place where sun shines for the entire day. Next, stakes should be driven into the ground about four feet away from each other and joined in a yoke-shape with poles. Two feet over the yokes, customized reed racks to prevent soil moisture from reaching the figs should be hung. The racks are spread over the reed racks and put intertwined wattles of giant red or fern on both sides to be risen at sunset, one against the other forming a vault as in huts, to keep the figs away from rain and dew so they can dry properly. Once dried, at midday (heated by the sun), they should be put tightly in pitch-covered pots. A fennel bed should be made under the pot and another layer of fennel should cover it. The lid should be sealed with gypsum, and the pot should be stored in a dry granary. Sun drying the figs is another technique of preservation. After removing their peduncles (before they get hard) they should be put in clay or stone bowls – lebrillos. Somebody should stomp the figs, with the feet washed, as they step on the knead flour. The person should add a little bit of toasted sesame, crushed Egyptian anise seed, fennel seeds and cumin to make dough fig, which should be moulded into medium cakes, wrapped into fig leaves, rush or any other herb, laid on wattles till dried. Once the cakes dry, they should be placed in pitch-covered pots, and heated in stoves or into ovens to totally dry. Then, the figs should be stored in a loft. To eat the cakes, the post should be broken. Another way is to select the thickest figs when they are not yet ripe, cut them open (with a cane or fingers), and lay the figs on the ground to sundry them. Once they are perfectly dried, they should be gathered at midday, well dried, pressed in the shape of a star or a flower and sun dried again. Finally, they should be stored in pots”.

2. 2. “Abū al-Jayr devotes an entire chapter to figs called, ‘How to prevent figs from rotting’.Footnote ⁶⁰ He writes that once sundried, the figs should be put in a place open to the cold night air, then stored. Abū al-Jayr adds that some put the fruit into containers until they are completely rotten and full of worms. Others spray the figs with salt water and put them between mastic leaves. Figs taste better when they are stuffed with fennel and have not been damaged by the wind”.

3. 3. “Oddly enough, Ibn Baṣṣāl did not mention any methods to preserve figs”.

4. 4. “Ibn al-ʿAwwām is very explicit while explaining how to preserve figs. In his book, he even includes two chapters about figs. The first is about fresh figs and the second is about dried figs.Footnote ⁶¹ In the first chapter, he recommends collecting them while they are still a little hard and keeping their stems. The stemmed figs should be separately put into a new pot, which should be left in a cool place. Additionally, figs can be placed on a bed of fig leaves and covered with a big glass or led bowl. For the latter chapter, (to preserve them dried) the figs should be collected completely ripe, naturally fallen from the tree, the figs should be set out to sundry over a bed of broom or dried reed. They should be left in the same position exposed to the dew, and before dawn, still damp and cold from the morning dew and the fresh air, the figs should be collected and stored inside clay jars. In order to avoid worms, dried fig or cypress leaves should be introduced in the jars, and to avoid any alteration, brine should be sprinkled inside the jars”.

5. 5. “Ibn Luyūn doesn't provide any recipes about figs preservation”.

6. 6. “Gabriel Alonso de Herrera devotes his twenty-seventh chapterFootnote ⁶² to fig trees and wild fig trees. In order to preserve figs, Alonso de Herrera advises that green figs should be selected before they are ripe since they are the sweetest. Then, the figs should be cooked with mead or sugar so they will last for a while. There are many ways to dry figs, if there is not sun, the fig could be laid out to dry on a bed of bark and fig leaves and they fruit should be rotated on all sides until completely dry. Then, the figs should be stored in barrels or large baskets called seras. Footnote ⁶³ Additionally, figs could be dried in (bread) ovens after leaving them till midday in the sun and then stored. However, Alonso de Herrera claims the dried fig does not taste as good. Alternatively, collecting the ripe fruit and drying it in the sun is another method of preserving a fig. Once dried, the fig should be stored in a barrel or pot that previously contained oil. If figs are stored with bay leaves, orange or other citrus leaves, the figs will not be infested with worms”.

Figs are rather hard to preserve when fresh since their skin is so thin and the fruit is delicate. Therefore, the majority of the preservation methods include drying the fruit. Traditionally, fruits are sun dried and stored in a dry place. Sometimes, the fig is chopped into small pieces or kneaded into dough for typical bread called fig bread.

Sundrying is the most common, simple and traditional of all the preservations methods on figs, and persists to this day in many country cottages. However, the biggest difference – on the texts mentioned above – lies in how to treat figs once night has fallen and dew falls or when must be gathered during the day to be stored. According to Columela, figs must be covered at night, to avoid the dew, and the most propitious time to gather them during the day is the hottest one. On the other hand, Ibn al-‘Awwām claims as the most suitable to leave them soaked with dew and to pick them up as long as they are moist. Other agronomists do not mention these details.

Drying totally the figs guarantees a longer period of preservation, since dampness promotes an overgrowth of bacteria and micro-organisms. Nevertheless, when figs are not totally dried upon touching the palate they are much more pleasant. Furthermore, finding the description of ‘pan de higos’ only in Columela surprised us; as if this recipe was forgotten over time and retrieved nowadays in pastry baking. It is such a simple recipe that aromatizes the taste of the figs which become an exquisite delicacy.

Eventually, Alonso de Herrera takes a step forward on the drying figs process, he explains how, if there is no sun, is still possible to dry them by arranging them over hot ashes or bread ovens. That is, indeed, the start of the industrial drying process, by removing the water content of fruits at any time and place, despite the weather. It must be taken into account that in the northernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula figs ripe later, thus, they are collected at the end of August or beginning of September, when rains are coming and sun is weaker. So, drying figs in ovens it's a perfect method since there is no need to depend on the weather.

Grapes, considered the queen of preserves, are also one of the most widely and easily preserved fruits. There are multiple varying preservation methods mentioned in the works consulted for this study.

1. 1. “Chapter sixteen, titled “How to preserve grapes and dry rowan”Footnote ⁶⁴ aptly describes different preservation techniques in Columela's book. He suggests collecting clusters of sweet white grapes with thick, tight grains. The grapes should be collected at 5 pm in serene weather under a waning moon. The grapes should then be spread across tables, while bleachFootnote ⁶⁵ is heated in a big pot. Once the bleach is boiling, oil and clusters of grapes should be stirred into the mixture. Without fully cooking the grapes, they should be left until their colour fades and then taken out and laid out separately on a table. In order for the cluster to completely dry and to not absorb the bleach, it must be turned over three hours later. Like Columela suggests with the figs, the grapes should be covered to be kept safe from rain and dew at night. Once fairly dried, the grape clusters should be placed in new pots sealed with gypsum. Some people choose to wrap dried grapes in fig leaves, leaving them to become raisins, while other people wrap them in vine or banana leaves and keep them in pitchers. Also, by heating a mixture of bark and bleach taken from a beanstalk, salt, and oil, grapes can be preserved, however the drying methods mentioned above must also be used”.

2. 2. “Abū al-Jayr also writes about grapes preservation and the process of making raisins.Footnote ⁶⁶ He claims that it is essential to collect grapes with tougher and thicker skin by cutting off the grape vine with the grape clusters. The grapes should be carefully put on plates. Later, wood planks should be nailed to the wall and the collected grape clusters should hang on the nails for twenty days. After twenty days, the clusters should be wrapped, and the vine sap will be collected in its buds. The vine shoot will extract the sap from the linen and transport it to the cluster, but this must be done in the winter. As for preserving the grapes that stay on the vine until March or April, a hole must be dug at the foot of the vine where the branches of grapes can be bent without touching the ground. The base of the hole should be full of clean soil and bend the branch so it does not touch the ground, but does not go back to its original position. Cover the hole, vine and branch with myrtle leaves and sediment that prevents water retention. In April, the grapes will be fresh and juicy. Hanging grape clusters for a few days, then keeping grapes in a pot lined with linen and covered with gypsum is a method that can also be used to preserve grapes.

   In order to make raisins, the best vines must be selected and the clusters of grapes must be twisted in place on the grape vine and left to dry. Once dried, the grapes must be separated and stored with their stems. Additionally scattering raisins over red earth for one or two days until they are dry and their stems reddened can also make raisins. Once dried, the raisins should be left out all night to absorb dew, and the next day the raisins should be hung on the nails like the grapes were. Moreover, harvesting premature grapes, soaking them in brine, and scattering them on a bed of barley or millet straw to dry in a cool place is another way of producing raisins. Also, once hung, teakwood, pine or cedar shavings or vine wood or hackberry bark can be sprinkled over the raisins as a way to preserve them. They also can be preserved if dipped in purslane or specific kinds of water. The final technique mentioned by Abū al-Jayr says that the grape clusters should be put into a pot sealed with hardened gypsum and keeping it in a cool place”.

3. 3. “Ibn Baṣṣāl does not include any techniques on how to conserve grapes”.

4. 4. “Ibn al-ʿAwwām writes the largest number of pages about grapes preservation.Footnote ⁶⁷ He writes that the grape clusters can be preserved if covered with fig tree bark, dampened by purslane juice or water, and hung. Additionally, the grape cluster can be covered in water, in which mice excrement and fig tree bark have been boiled. Once dried, the grapes should be wrapped in barley straw. Soaking grapes in water in which banana, pine, or vine bark has been milled, and hanging the grapes dry is another method of preservation. The grapes can be kept in cowpat bowls, with a mud-sealed lid, and then stored in a cool place. Layering grapes and straw in a glass container sealed with mud to prevent air reaching the grapes is a third preservation method according to Ibn al-ʿAwwām. A fourth method would be to soak the grape cluster in brine and leave them to dry over beans, barely, or straw in a cool, shady place. Soaking the grape clusters in water or cutting the cluster with its stem and leaves, coating it with pitch and hanging it, are two other methods that Ibn al-ʿAwwām mentions. Putting the clusters, cleaned from rotten grains, into glasses or glazed pots filled with decontaminated rainwater is another often used method. Burying the grape cluster in barley or soaking it in bleach from a fig tree bark and strained and wrapped in straw in another alternative.

   In order to preserve the grapes cluster on the vine, each cluster must be put in a muslin bag, with the rim bound by string to the vine in order to hold it in place. The cluster can also be wrapped in carded wool, instead. Like Abū al-Jayr, Ibn al-ʿAwwām mentions the technique of digging a hole and half-burying the clusters still attached to the vine but covering the hole with while lily leaves. The same technique should be applied; although the clusters should be put into new glass jars with muddy rims.

   As for making raisins, the best technique is to collect the grapes once they are ripe, twist their stems to securely attach them to the grapevines in such a way that the grapes (not receiving anything from the vine) will dry out and wrinkle. Once wrinkled, the grapes must be collected and hung in a shady place until they are completely dry. Later, the grapes should be stored in clay jars and sealed with mud. Instead of storing the grapes in jars, they can also be spread over dried beds of tendril and stored in cold rooms away from the smoke and the humidity.

   If the grapes are big, if they have been gathered too late, or if they dry quickly, water should be boiled mixed with bleach from cypress or bark. Once clarified, this water should be heated again and the cluster been introduced one by one, then, the grapes need to be dried in the sun, over dried grass and turned over every morning until they are completely dry”.

5. 5. “Ibn Luyūn writes about grapes preservations in several epigraphs. In chapter ninety-fourth: ‘How to press raisins’,Footnote ⁶⁸ details how to make raisins by pouring water over a bed of sawdust and boiling it. Two days later, oil should be added to the mixture and boiled again. Next the grapes should be added to the pot, but only for a short time. While one cluster of grapes is straining, another one can be added to the pot. Once the grapes are all out of the pot, they should be left to dry in the sun.

   In chapter one hundred and six, ‘The second part of fruit preservation’,Footnote ⁶⁹ Ibn Luyūn mentions that the fresh grapes should be preserved, and once cleaned them should be hung in a closed room. He also writes that covering the clusters in spelt, barley, or lupines straw can preserve grapes. By collecting the premature or overripe grapes on calm days, cleaning the grapes, and layering them in jars is another method of preservation”.

6. 6. “Gabriel Alonso de Herrera devotes two entire chapters to the grapes preservation. In the first one, chapter nineteen, titled ‘How to preserve fresh grapes and raisins’,Footnote ⁷⁰ he explains that before the rain and the harvest come, the grapes have to be collected and stored either fresh or as raisins. The grapes must be in a good condition, not too ripe nor too sweet, and not rotten since they will spoil other grapes. They must be collected before it rains under a waning moon, in order for the grapes to be safe from dew and humidity. The grape clusters have to be long and thin, and they are better when collected from sandy earth rather than from coarse ground. The fruit must be brought home by hand, not carried by animals, quickly as not to damage the grapes. In order to keep the grapes fresh at home, there are several methods we can follow: the first of which would be to hang the grape clusters individually in the wind. If they are hung on rooftops, the grapes should be covered with nets to prevent the birds from pecking at them. The Moors in Granada commonly netted their roofs to keep the birds away. Additionally, grapes can be stored in barely or clean straw. The grape vine stems should be coated in pitch on the inside and outside, and when stripped of its stem, the grape cluster should be layered with straw in very large tubs. The slid of the tub should be sealed with clay or gypsum, and the tub should be stored on high shelves. Some choose to put shavings of poplar bark in the tub instead of straw. Another preservation technique is to take a flat, wide tub, coat it inside and out with pitch, and place the clusters (whose stems have also been coated in the pitch) in the tub and seal the top with mud so no water can permeate it. The tub should then be fully immersed in a well, fountain or water tank. Additionally, grapes can be preserved on the vine. A large clay container with two symmetrical handles should be moulded, but before it is fired, the container should be cut into equal haves. The vines should be bound to the clay handles. When the grapes ripen, a cluster should be put in both clay halves. The halves should be moulded together, but the clay container should be large enough so the grapes do not touch the sides. In order to eat the grapes, the clay pot must be broken, however the grapes inside will not taste very good.

   It is also possible to preserve grapes on the vine that have long shoots and many clusters. A hole must be dug at the foot of the vine where the branches of grapes can be bent without touching the ground. Cover the hole with lily leaves to shade the grapes and sediment that prevents water retention. In April, the grapes will be fresh.

   In Alonso de Herrera's second about grapes, chapter twenty titled ‘How to elaborate raisins’Footnote ⁷¹ he writes that the grapes that are to be preserved should be collected simultaneously with the grapes to be consumed immediately. A large pot full with clear bleach from shoot bark should be boiled. When boiling, a bit of oil and saffron should be added (if yellow raisins are the desired result), and then the grape clusters should be added. When the grapes change colour, they should be taken out of the pot and hung in the sun and wind, but protected from the dew and rain. Also, a dollop of quicklime can be added to the bleach in order to help the raisins dry faster. Another way to make raisins is to wait until the grapes are completely ripe to pull them off the vine after sunlight. Then, the stems should be twisted and the grapes should be left to dry. Later, they should be stored. By placing the grapes on a non-resin plank in the oven while it is hot overnight will is an additional method to make raisins. The next day, the clusters should be dampened with a good wine and placed to dry under the sun. Once the grapes are dry, they should be stored. Spraying the dry grape clusters with an aromatic white wine and sprinkling them with cinnamon, sugar and clove would improve the taste of the dried grapes. The grapes must be wrapped in vine leaves and placed in pots with bay and citrus leaves”.

Even though grapes' skin is soft and juicy, it is resilient, which allows the fruit to remain ripe for a long time. Therefore, grapes can be preserved fresh or dried, provided that the grains do not spoil, and the condition of all of the grapes in the cluster is very important. In order to preserve fresh grapes, they can be hung in clusters in a cool, dry place, or they can be covered in holes in the ground until springtime or until they are buried in clay or glass containers. As for raisins, the fruit that made many Andalusian dishes so delicious, twisting and attaching the stems to the vine itself until the grapes dry is one method of preservation. The sun drying technique is the easiest and cheapest way to preserve grapes. The authors, all of them, agree on the technique of drying raisins by using a kind of bleach resulting from boiling ashes in water, or scattering the ashes over the grapes, then dry them same as the figs.

Columela and Alonso de Herrera totally agree on this description and process, which proves, as observed through other parts of this paper, that the latter knew about the work of the first one, taken Columela's work into consideration when it comes to put forward his recipes. On the other hand, the Arabic authors, describe the process similarly but introducing some variants. Among them, Ibn Luyūn is the closest to Columela.

Moreover, Abū al-Jayr, Ibn al-ʿAwwām and Alonso de Herrera agree on preserving grapes by leaving them hanging down from the grapevine, once the stalks are twisted, in order to cut the sap supply and dry the grapes. This method allows sundrying, avoiding any kind of contact which permits air to pass through the clusters making the drying safer and uniform. All of them apply the technique of making raisins by hanging them or scattering the cluster under the sun. Furthermore, Alonso de Herrera goes beyond that in his recipes, and besides of sundrying, suggests to place the raisins into bread ovens once turned off, to stay all night and then moisten them in the morning with must or grape juice let dry and store. Also suggests aromatizing them with cinnamon, sugar and clove which acts too as preservatives.

Bread ovens has been used by Alonso de Herrera for dried figs, so the same technique has to be good for fruits which have a high sugar content, as figs and grapes.

And for the preservation of fresh grapes, Abū al-Jayr, Ibn al-ʿAwwām y Alonso de Herrera agree on the most extraordinary method: digging pits at the foot of the grapevines introducing the cluster, cover them with plants and soil, protecting the clusters from the rain and leaving them this way until April. This technique provides a cool and dark environment, sort of a fridge, which, together with the supply of sap to the cluster, makes it lasts fresh longer.

The thin skin and juicy flesh of pears make them a very delicate fruits; however it is very easily and commonly preserved.

1. 1. “Columela devotes part of the chapter ten and fourteen to describe the different techniques of pears preservation. In the first chapter,Footnote ⁷² Columela recommends collecting unripe pears and watching them mature into a flawless, ripe condition. Once they are ripe, the pears should be put immediately into a clay pot coated with pitch, and filled with wine or partially diluted wine. Pears should be submerged and the pot's lid should be sealed with gypsum. Also, pears, like any other fruit, can be preserved in a honey glaze without mixing different varieties of pears.

   In his second chapter,Footnote ⁷³ Columela describes how to dry pears. The sweetest pears should be gathered in early August, and then should be cut into two or three pieces and placed under the sun to dry”.

2. 2. “Abū al-Jayr concisely describes how to preserve pears.Footnote ⁷⁴ He writes that clay containers should be custom made to the size of the pear, but the container should but cut into halves. If the fruit is still on the tree, the clay halves should cove the pear so that the pear can be preserved for a long time as it is now protected from the rain, hail, frost, and birds”.

3. 3. “Ibn Baṣṣāl does not provide any recipes related to pears conservation”.

4. 4. “Ibn al-ʿAwwām provides a general method to preserve quinces, apples, pears and ciders.Footnote ⁷⁵ He writes that fruits should be carefully gathered from the trees as not to damage the fruit. The fruit should be in perfect, ripe condition and should have its stem. If the fruit is wrapped in walnut leaves or in pieces of linen and bound with thread and covered in mud or gypsum, it can be preserved for a very long time. When the fruit is covered, it should be hung in the shade to dry away from the elements. Instead of hang drying, the fruit can also be buried in barley. In order to consume the fruit, the mud around the fruit should be dampened until it comes off.

   Secondly, Ibn al-ʿAwwām also provides a recipe specifically regarding the preservation pears.Footnote ⁷⁶ Putting pears in jars whose base is covered in medium coarse salt or sawdust, in a jar and covered with honey, or in a clay jar filled with wine all serve as a method to preserve pears. Another method is to put the pear in clay jars, seal the top and bury the jar in the ground or submerge it in water. Finally, pears can be preserved fresh like other fruits, by collecting them before they are ripe, coating their stems with melted pitch and squeezing them, well separated from each other by layers of bark.

   In order to preserve dried pears, they must be chopped into pieces and placed on planks under the sun. The pears should be turned over every four days until the pieces are completely dry. Then, they should be layered in esparto baskets, and in order for the pears to be well preserved, sweet, and soft they should be sprinkled with mead”.

5. 5. “Ibn Luyūn provides very brief notes about pears preservation.Footnote ⁷⁷ An indentation should be made into each pear, and then, they should be left out in the sun until they dry. Once dried, they should be sprinkled with mead nectar and covered”.

6. 6. “Gabriel Alonso de Herrera devotes chapter thirty-sevenFootnote ⁷⁸ of his book to pear trees. According Alonso de Herrera, pears make very subtle preserves and an even more delicate jelly than the quince. They also taste great when baked with cinnamon and sugar. Macerating pears in wine, compressing them in a serge sack can also preserve pears. Additionally, pears can be macerated in vinegar, piled for four to five days, and stored in clay pots submerged in rain or spring water for a month”.

Pears can be either preserved fresh or dried. If preserved as fresh fruit, macerating it in wine, glazing it with honey, covering each pair in a custom made clay container while the pear is still on the tree in the shade are three different methods that can be used. In order to be preserved as dry fruit, the pears should be chopped into two or three pieces and left in the sun until they dehydrate. Later, pear wine and vinegar can be made.

Preserving pears in wine is one of the most basic recipes we can find in nearly all the works mentioned in this paper. This fruit, having a more delicate thin skin than other fruits we have dealt with, and a really juicy flesh, can easily absorb any liquid and get quickly aromatized. Thus, such a traditional dessert in our today's Spanish cooking as are ‘pears in red wine’, goes back to the time of the Romans and had continued to be a dish and a preserved fruit over centuries of history. Also almost all the authors agree that preserving pears in honey is a good technique, which guarantees conservation and can be employed with all type of fruits. In both cases, we can use fresh or sundried pears.

Special cases are those which are proposed in our texts, and mentioned only by Alonso de Herrera, who speaks of making thick compote by adding to the pears sugar and aromatizing the mix with cinnamon, which is a very delicate dessert of delicious taste. Indeed, today our mothers go on making it. And he also describes how to do vinegar of pears, which is certainly a more rare case, but obviously possible, this vinegar has a superb aroma.