This volume, the fruit of a 2012 conference at the University of Auckland, aims to provide a ‘snapshot’ of current research in ancient military history. Indeed, the volume successfully presents an array of intriguing research from across the ancient Mediterranean world. While several edited volumes on ancient warfare have been produced recently (e.g. G. Fagan, M. Trundle [edd.], New Perspectives on Ancient Warfare [2010]; B. Campbell, L.A. Tritle [edd.], The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World [2013]; G. Lee, H. Whittaker, G. Wrightson [edd.], Ancient Warfare: Introducing Current Research, Volume 1 [2015]), this one stands out for two reasons. First, most chapters focus on relatively unexplored areas – such as irregular warfare and military cohesion – and feature unique methodological approaches. Second, the editor deliberately paired chapters for their thematic similarities, which highlights the direction of current research and engenders comparison.
In the introductory chapter, the editor makes a powerful and important argument for why scholars should study war: in sum, war presents ‘in stark contrast those social and cultural rules which were either invisible, or sometimes not yet existent’ and usually involves intense cross-cultural interaction; thus ‘it represents an invaluable lens for academic study’ (p. 2). Here A. also briefly discusses the thematically-paired chapters. Although the volume is described as ‘overtly comparative’ (p. 3), explicit comparative analysis is confined to these opening comments.
The first section, ‘Military Narratives’, comprises chapters by A. Spalinger and D. Nolan. Spalinger examines the narrative techniques used in New Kingdom texts and visual representations, focusing in particular on scenes of the pharaoh at war with Asian cities. The textual and visual forms of narrative are distinct but overlap in fascinating ways: both use standard elements to emphasise the pharaoh's role as chariot-warrior and to show that action often stems from the pharaoh's presence. Both also use ‘staccato-like progression through time’ rather than continuous narrative (p. 23). This suggests that such discrete pictures, in writing or in image, were essential to the Egyptian conception and construction of their past.
Nolan's chapter examines centurion exempla in Caesar's Bellum Gallicum. Nolan argues that Caesar's exempla served important narrative functions, which yield historical information about the expected behaviours of centurions in combat. Specifically, Caesar's exempla suggest that centurions were expected to take up dangerous roles – wading into danger, so their troops can recover, and bravely holding their units together – only in moments of crisis. In fact, Nolan contends, centurions were not normally expected to inspire through aggressive displays of virtus; rather, their normal responsibility was to control their men and ensure commands were obeyed. Nolan's conclusions, which are based on the careful consideration of narrative context, suggest that Polybius’ (6.24) interpretation of the centurions’ role in the middle Republic is valid also for the late Republic – which points to interesting continuities in the Roman army.
The next section, ‘The Economics of Warfare’, features chapters by M. Trundle and N. Rosenstein. These chapters are excellently paired, as both clearly illustrate the economic sinews of war. Trundle examines coinage in the fifth-century Athenian Empire. Trundle argues that Athens’ naval power was expensive – and while tribute from allies and Laureion silver financed the navy, warfare and revolt strained Athenian resources. Stress on financial resources in turn encouraged military expansion to acquire more resources, which of course required further payment for ships and men. Athenian coinage was the main tool that facilitated this imperial dynamic. In short, Athens demanded tribute in the form of silver and Athenian coin, which many allies acquired by (e.g.) selling food to Athens or serving in Athenian fleets. Thus Athenian coinage circulated around the empire, a crucial mechanism by which Athens controlled economic and military resources.
Rosenstein challenges the idea that Rome's wars in the Middle Republic paid for themselves through plunder and indemnities, which rarely would have covered costs. Instead he contends that wars were financed primarily by the tributum collected from citizens. He models the financial impact of tributum by estimating the costs of the legionary stipendium and the amount paid by the assidui in each census class. Judging from these estimates, he argues that the tributum was relatively modest for individual families – a consequence of the large citizenry that shared the burden. Here Rosenstein uses heuristic and comparative methods similar to his approach in previous works (e.g. Rome at War [2004]), and he is appropriately cautious about potential pitfalls. Despite incomplete data, his figures plausibly suggest that the economic strength of the citizenry was fundamental to Rome's success.
‘Military Cohesion’ is the subject of the next section. A. argues that archaic Rome lacked a ‘strong, cohesive, community-based identity binding it together’ (p. 106). By extension, archaic armies were probably not held together by socio-political bonds or a common civic ethos, yet they seem to have been generally successful. To understand what allowed early Roman armies to operate cohesively, A. turns to a concept from modern military studies: ‘task-based’ cohesion, ‘commitment to task-related goals’ (p. 102). A. argues that archaic warfare revolved around raiding and defending against raids. The mutual defence of territory and the tangible benefits of booty would have served as powerful task-based bonds for archaic soldiers. While studies of early Rome are notoriously problematic, A.’s chapter commendably employs modern concepts to gain new insights in this difficult period.
M. Hebblewhite examines the Roman military oath (sacramentum militiae) to understand how it functioned between 235 and 395 ce – when loyalties were often less certain and usurpation was more frequent. Wide-ranging literary references demonstrate that late imperial soldiers, officers and even federate troops swore the sacramentum, thereby pledging to serve the emperor faithfully. The oath was couched in terms of religious (and increasingly Christian) duty and seems to have been taken seriously by all parties. Yet, he concludes, the record of usurpations and rebellions – each of which implicitly demonstrates broken oaths – shows that the main role of the sacramentum was to reinforce existing loyalties; it could not generate loyalty from scratch.
In the next section, ‘Military Authority’, R. Covino addresses the limitations of magisterial imperium in the Roman Republic, particularly in the provinces. Using Sicily as a case study, Covino shows that the gubernatorial power was curtailed from at least the early second century bce: the senate's consulta, governors’ edicts and customary regulations such as the lex Hieronica cumulatively limited the imperium of provincial governors. While some scholars stress the significance of the repetundae laws and the lex Porcia in circumscribing governors’ actions, Covino persuasively argues that their imperium had been restrained almost since the creation of the provincial commands.
In the subsequent chapter, J. Kierstead argues that Athens’ naval leagues were not simply exploitative tools of Athenian imperialism. By viewing the leagues through the lens of collective action theory, he instead regards the Delian League and the Second Athenian Confederacy as groups acting collectively to provide themselves with public goods: namely, security and safe access to maritime markets. While Athens used coercion to maintain these common goods, many allies also participated in coercive activities. Moreover, Athens took on disproportionate burdens in maintaining the alliance system and providing its benefits. It is not entirely clear how Athens’ use of conspicuous violence against revolting allies or Athenian aggression against outsiders fits into this picture of collective action (e.g. Thuc. 3.50.1; 5.116.4). Nonetheless, Kierstead points to abundant evidence of cooperation and shared benefits, and his arguments should stimulate lively debate.
A section on ‘Irregular Warfare’ follows. L. Rawlings contributes a chapter on ‘irregular warfare’ in the Punic Wars. In the ancient narratives, Roman and Carthaginian forces frequently engage in raids, skirmishes and ambushes. Despite the disinterest of ancient authors, Rawlings argues that these activities were highly significant for Roman and Carthaginian armies. Raids and ambushes might deprive the enemy of necessary resources; soldiers who lost skirmishes or were constantly harassed might experience blows to morale; raids on agricultural lands could provoke or intimidate the enemy, or encourage allies to defect. While irregular operations were rarely decisive, Rawlings is clear that they shaped the course of campaigns in the Punic Wars.
J.W.P. Wijnendaele's chapter is paired with Rawlings's, though Wijnendaele does not address ‘irregular warfare’ in the same sense. Rather, he illustrates the irregular forms of authority emerging in the fifth-century ce Roman army. To this end, Wijnendaele adopts the concept of ‘warlordism’ from political science and third-world studies. Using Bonifatius as a case study, Wijnendaele shows how this particular commander used his retinue of buccellarii to establish his own power base, from which he was able to act with increasing independence from central imperial authority. Bonifatius and others, such as Aetius, showed would-be rebels that the emperor had no monopoly on violence, setting a precedent that would contribute to the disintegration of the western army. The ‘warlordism’ concept acts to clarify and explain this dynamic.
The final section treats ‘Fortifications and Sieges’. In his discussion of siege warfare in Ancient Egypt, B. Heagren argues that siege warfare was essential to Egyptian defence and conquest. Heagren assembles pictorial evidence from several dynasties to show the wide range of siege tactics that the Egyptians employed. Heagren concedes that there are problems with artistic evidence, but he argues logically that these scenes represent ‘expected and recognized’ (p. 260) military activity, and thus provide key clues about Egyptian siege warfare. Following Heagren is J. Lee's intriguing chapter on the Achaemenid defences in western Anatolia between 412 and 395 bce. By focusing on a short timeframe, Lee shows that the satrap Tissaphernes faced considerable difficulties defending western Anatolia: divided local loyalties, a long coastline and rugged terrain. Tissaphernes shored up defences in some strategic locations, but avoided committing resources to certain hard-to-reach places and counted on some locals seeing to their own defence (pp. 264–8). As Lee demonstrates, Tissaphernes’ arrangements proved successful against the Athenians in the latter years of the Peloponnesian War, but were less successful during Sparta's later incursions. Ultimately these years show that local realities, both geographic and political, created complications and problems for Persian defences.
The comparative features of this volume are welcome, but it is unfortunate that there is not more dialogue across articles and between thematic sections – particularly given the emphasis on comparison in the thought-provoking introduction. For example, Trundle's chapter on the dynamics of Athenian imperialism offers an interesting contrast to Kierstead's chapter on collective action. Furthermore, not all of the paired chapters fit together as neatly as others. While there is clear synergy between (e.g.) Rosenstein and Trundle, the similarities between (e.g.) Rawlings and Wijnendaele are much broader. But these are minor criticisms, and A.’s introduction effectively primes the reader to think comparatively across the diverse topics here. The volume is well-produced and edited, with only a handful of typographical errors. It successfully accomplishes its major goals, offering an informative cross-section of current research on ancient warfare.
