English in Azerbaijan

To understand the role of a global language in different societies, one needs to distinguish between imperial or colonial and post-imperial or post-colonial societies. As a rule, imperial societies strongly resist any kind of linguistic globalization which they consider to be an imminent threat to their language and culture. Post-imperial societies, such as Azerbaijan, tend to have a more open attitude to the realities of a global language since they feel more secure in their cultural identities. Therefore, the spread of global English creates an excellent opportunity for building multilingualism and plurilingualism in post-imperial societies.

This paper sets out to present the main developments in English language education policy and practice in Azerbaijan from the early 1990s to the present day, and it also highlights some future challenges and perspectives. Key research questions asked in the current paper are (1) What issues have emerged in discussion around the role of English in Azerbaijan? (2) What have been the implications of globalization regarding the expansion of English as a foreign language (EFL) and English as a medium of instruction (EMI) in Azerbaijan?

By and large, English has an enormously prominent position globally in terms of the number of people who use it and of its impact on multilingualism and individual plurilingualism. Therefore, the unique role of English in Azerbaijan is a commonly accepted reality. The spread of English worldwide has gained momentum since the end of the Cold War, and it is interesting to study the role of English and English language teaching in the newly independent states established as result of the dissolution of the Soviet Union due to the complex linguistic situation in these countries. In this context, Azerbaijan is of special interest, as one of these states with a multicultural and multilingual society where English has become increasingly popular over the last three decades. The most crucial concern must be to understand how English functions in relation to other languages such as Azerbaijani and Russian (a very important regional language) in the wider multilingual context of this country. There has been a strong need to reconsider the instrumental aims of language education in Azerbaijan, adapting them to the constantly transforming realities of the society.

In the context of Azerbaijan and its adjacent post-imperial neighbor states, the promotion of linguistic diversity can be mainly attributed to the role of the three major Pan-European institutions: the European Union, Council of Europe, and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). The European Union with its emphasis on the cooperation of independent nations is testing its boundaries by involving culturally and linguistically diverse communities that are represented by the countries’ government officials at the European Union's institutions. As a result, public administrators in many countries, who are directly involved in institutional procedures, feel a compelling need to be enrol in intensive and semi-intensive language courses for specialists.

Another two Pan-European institutions, the Council of Europe and OSCE, also promote the use of English in the daily activities of these organizations. The accession of new member-states from the former Eastern bloc to these organizations, including Azerbaijan, also gave an impetus to the increasing role of English within European institutions as the new member-states mostly use English for international communication.

The integration of the English language into the educational system of Azerbaijan has also been greatly impacted by global socio-political changes, which, in turn, have been reflected in the country's educational policies. Even though Azerbaijani is a de facto official language in the country, both Azerbaijani and Russian are the languages of instruction in public schools (Mammadov, Reference Mammadov, Garibova and Zuercher2009). As a foreign language, English, like several other languages, has been one of the core subjects in the school curriculum since the 1950s.

The internationalization of the educational system in Azerbaijan, which began right after the country gained its independence in 1991, triggered further enhancement and promotion of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in private and public schools as well as in higher educational institutions. These processes were later followed by a number of other important events in the educational developments in Azerbaijan such as accession to the Bologna process (May 2006) and commitment to the goals of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA), as well as the adoption of the Joint Convention of the European Council and UNESCO on Recognition of Higher Education Qualifications and Documents (Lisbon, April 11, 1997; Bologna, June 19, 1999). Mammadova highlights a fundamental role of the Bologna process in the rising interest in English language learning in Azerbaijan (Mammadova, Reference Mammadova2020). Moreover, a shift in the orientation of educational goals and objectives from ‘knowledgeable and educated’ to ‘competent and skilled’ shifted the focus towards English as a medium of instruction, where English is not perceived purely in terms of language fluency but rather as a means of enhancing pragmatic or communicative competences. It should be mentioned that during the Soviet regime, the methodology of English language teaching in Azerbaijan was based on an authoritarian ideology of education and was far from the communicative approach. Safiyeva and Kennedy (Reference Shafiyeva and Kennedy2010: 13) attribute this to the fact than in any undemocratic state, the government prevents the development of independent thinking so that it does not ‘move from the classroom into the society’.

Since the 1990s Azerbaijan has become a member of the major European institutions, which has made it crucial to develop specialists with communicative and language competences. Aligning their educational system and curriculum with a rapidly transforming global market and its demands has become one of the predominant challenges faced by educators in Azerbaijan (Mammadova, Reference Mammadova2019). For instance, the emphasis on successful communication skills motivated by increasing opportunities for interaction and mobility remains important in Azerbaijan and the rest of the world. In this context, English language skills are essential if individuals are to benefit from employment opportunities leading to economic mobility, and/or to participate actively in social processes. This globally increasing focus on language policies is reflected in the educational goals in Azerbaijan, which strive to develop plurilingual and intercultural citizens capable of interacting in a number of languages across linguistic and cultural boundaries.

The inclination of Azerbaijanis towards learning English rather than Russian or other foreign languages has also dramatically increased. In a study conducted among students from two Azerbaijan universities, Khazar University and Qafgaz University, Karimova reveals that 97% of the surveyed students are aware of the necessity of learning a foreign language with 90% of them prioritizing English over other international languages (Karimova, Reference Karimova2017).

All the above-mentioned changes in the linguistic landscape of post-imperial countries challenge educational leaders to work towards making English language teaching and learning more feasible and effective. Ineffective English language teaching is mainly triggered by the fact that teaching of the school subject targets students’ better performance in the State Admission Examination, which requires in-depth knowledge but not necessarily the application of grammar rules. Thus, in terms of teaching English to school students, a thorough consideration of integrating and developing receptive and productive skills, such as reading and listening comprehension, speaking fluency, and structured and coherent writing is of the utmost importance.

Teaching English in Azerbaijan

Brumfit (Reference Brumfit2001: 116) suggests that ‘the massive spread of English teaching in the years after the war led to the position that is now true: that the English language no longer belongs numerically to speakers of English as a mother tongue, or first language’. Following the end of World War II, many countries across the world, including the former Soviet Union, moved towards prioritizing teaching EFL. EFL teaching for young learners has recently gained further momentum in the world as more countries introduce EFL teaching as a compulsory subject in the early years (aged five or six) of primary school. However, this initiative does not provide a solid ground for raising the English language proficiency in the country to the required standards, especially when the language competence of university/college graduates is considered. According to the existing international English language proficiency level reports, the ranking for Azerbaijan is alarming. In the EF English Proficiency Index, the overall level of English in Azerbaijan, even though it is included among the top 100 countries, is ranked as 85 in the world and the lowest in Europe.

The process of joining international organizations required high-level English proficiency from government officials, including nations’ military and security personnel. Considering the latter, the UK government jointly with the Ministries of Defense of the partner states, including Azerbaijan, established and financially supported a locally sustainable English language training system called the Peacekeeping English Project (PEP). The aim of the project, which lasted in Azerbaijan from 2000 to 2010, was to ensure enhanced interoperability in English regarding issues of international peace support. The participating countries were selected on the bases of strategic importance and geopolitical priorities, and the British Council, based on its experience in language teaching projects, was entrusted with the management of the PEP. Discussing PEP, Crossey emphasizes the importance of English as ‘the foreign language of choice for many armed and security forces around the globe as training and interaction with national contingents in most peace support operations, or humanitarian and disaster relief operations, are carried out in this language’ (Crossey, Reference Crossey2008: 210). These steps reflect a growing global awareness about the need for English education. At the same time, with a higher interest in English language learning, concerns about the quality of EFL teaching are also increasing.

However, the rising demand for English not only in education but also in the workplace makes EFL insufficient in reaching the level of proficiency adequate to the requirements of the global market. Consequently, these demands for English language proficiency drive language policies in Azerbaijan towards implementing English as a medium of instruction (EMI) as well as enhancing the quality of language teaching and assessment. In a survey of public opinion regarding EMI carried by the British Council, Azerbaijan was among the 38% of the focal countries where EMI was favored by the public and perceived as a means of possible improvement of suitable employment chances (Dearden, Reference Dearden2014). According to Dearden (Reference Dearden2014: 15) ‘the public is very much interested in seeing EMI as a part of the teaching curriculum, but more work needs to be done on the policy level’. Another result of Dearden's (Reference Dearden2014) survey based on open-ended questions showed that as of 2013 EMI was not allowed at public universities in Azerbaijan. However, this data is not fully accurate, since two public universities in Azerbaijan, ADA University, and Baku Higher Oil School, had already introduced EMI by the year 2013. Since then, many other public universities have introduced EMİ for either certain courses and programs or as the only language of instruction of higher education. In private educational institutions, most of the schools that have opened in the country since the 1990s use English as the main language of instruction.

It should also be noted that ever since its inception, EMI has led to many controversies among linguists and educators. The proponents of EMI see it as an integral part of the internationalization of education tightly linked to the economic, political, and cultural development of the country and its integration into the world. EMI is believed to have a considerable impact on the educational institution by attracting more international students, making the graduates of EMI institutions more compatible with the global markets, and raising the prestige of the university (Ferencz & Maiworm, Reference Ferencz, Maiworm, Wachter and Maiworm2008). Critiques of EMI, on the other hand, claim that the potentially problematic pedagogical and practical consequences of integrating EMI into the curricula of educational institutions have not been thoroughly considered (Hoffman et al., Reference Hoffman2009). While acknowledging the benefits brought by the development of English as a global language, opponents criticize the process in terms of exacerbating global inequalities with high and medium levels of society having easier access to English language learning than people with low social status (Pennycook, Reference Pennycook, Benson and Voller2014; Tupas, Reference Tupas2015). Phillipson criticizes the Bologna process and the reforms of the internationalized educational system as provoking this rapid spread of EMI; in his further publications, he refers to EMI as a serious threat to ‘social cohesion and the vitality of local language’ (Phillipson, Reference Phillipson2006; Reference Phillipson2008: 38). Thus, the emergence of EMI in Azerbaijan, which has also been triggered by the Bologna process and internationalization of education in general, provokes the same confrontations among the concerned parties. As the trend of EMI is considerably new in the country and has been overlooked by linguists, a compelling need for its further study is deemed appropriate.

Meanwhile, the demand for teaching English that has shifted from traditional methodology to communicative and content-based approaches is increasing, leading to the need for teachers’ professional development. With the purpose of increasing teachers’ methodological competences and content knowledge, the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Azerbaijan undertook several measures in collaboration with international organizations responsible for educational reforms in general and the spread of English as a global language. One such initiative was Training of Trainers courses organized by the British Council and the Ministry of Education. The courses aimed at selecting experienced in-service teachers willing to pursue teacher educator or English Language Teaching program administrator positions. The courses included certain knowledge and transferable skills essential for teaching and training roles, such as learning styles, classroom management, giving constructive feedback, evaluating instructional material, and practical delivery methods. In transforming teachers into more confident educators capable of delivering further professional training activities on their own, the government later involved them in the training of newly qualified and less experienced teachers. Thus, the benefits and the outreach of the Training of Trainers program were considerable, covering the professional development of nearly all schoolteachers in Azerbaijan. English language teachers in Azerbaijan have also taken up opportunities for continuing professional development offered through different internationally recognized certification and diploma programs, such as CELTA, DELTA, TEFL, and TESOL.

Despite all the above-mentioned initiatives, there is still considerable room for improvement and a general understanding that EFL teaching in Azerbaijan needs to be adapted to contemporary realities such as integrating language functions and context-related communicative language and individual requirements of students (Widdowson, Reference Widdowson2003). Since English retains a unique status as the main language of international education and social communication, its teaching should provide true academic and real-life communicative prospects for students, especially after they leave school.

Challenges facing the global role of English shown in the example of Azerbaijan

Despite positive developments and successful implementations concerning the expansion of English in Azerbaijan, there are still serious challenges facing the further spread of English.Since English language teaching in Azerbaijan relies extensively on non-native speakers, certain linguistic barriers typical for non-native speakers in both spoken and written discourses remain a concern. In spoken English, such linguistic problems occur, particularly in idiomatic speech, such as the use of metaphorical language, idioms, phrasal verbs, etc. (Seidhofer, Reference Seidhofer2003). In the case of written discourse, more questions arise concerning English applied in the academic sphere by non-native speakers and its conformity with certain linguistic norms adhered to by native speakers (Seidhofer, Reference Seidhofer2003).

Some challenges in the global expansion of EFL teaching should also remain under the constant consideration of linguists and educators in general. First, teaching EFL within a compulsory curriculum in primary and secondary schools worldwide is often characterized by large class sizes. Limited resources, particularly exposure to native English and authentic materials produced by native speakers of English, poor writing skills, and underqualified teachers are also among the factors that have a detrimental influence on the quality of EFL teaching.

The issue of language as linguistic imperialism or a threat to national identity has been widely discussed in the context of Azerbaijan. Luscombe and Kazdal explore the language of instruction in Azerbaijan and how it affects students’ perception of their linguistic identity (Luscombe & Kazdal, Reference Luscombe and Kazdal2014). They report a clear, yet insignificant, correlation between the students’ linguistic identity and the formation of their national identity. This positive trend in Azerbaijan may be attributed to post-imperialism syndrome: where the nation prioritizes its native language as the main indicator of its national identity on the one hand while on the other hand it strives for modernization and political and social empowerment through learning foreign/global languages. Moreover, there is a general understanding that if English is used in such a way as to serve its unique function as an international language, it does not represent a threat to other languages because of its distinct role and status. Thus, English is not considered as a threat if its perception as an international language is in place. But if this status changes and English becomes an increasingly more locally or nationally required language in terms of jobs, careers, and even daily interactions, then people can treat English as a threat and its positive perception will change among various social groups. In addition, English is facing tough competition with Russian, which is seriously challenging its role and status in the country.

As English has many varieties, there is an ongoing debate among language policy makers in Azerbaijan about the variety of English to be taught in classrooms. Among the concepts taken into consideration by educational policymakers and researchers are concepts such as standard, variety, native speaker vs. non-native speaker, dialect, register, genre, and the role played by plurilingual and pluricultural English language teachers. Another factor that affects the spread of a certain variety of English language in Azerbaijan can be attributed to the role of international institutions involved in the spread of the English language in the country. The two major institutions responsible for the spread of the English language and culture in Azerbaijan are the American Council and the British Council. The active role of both institutions in teachers’ professional development, corporate English language teaching projects, and international fellowship programs have resulted in equal opportunities for the spread of the two major varieties of English, i.e. British English and American English. However, future developments in this regard seem to be inclining towards British English, especially with the increasing number of Britain-produced IELTS test takers, which reached 3.5 million in 2018, prevailing over US-produced TOEFL candidates (British Council, 2019).