In the mind of the average contemporary Norwegian, the country is divided into four regions, northern, southern, eastern and western. However, the perception was rather different two centuries ago, when the country was viewed as divided into nordafjells and sønnafjells, that is, ‘north of the mountains’ and ‘south of the mountains’;Reference Helle1 the ‘mountains’ in this context means the range that runs south-south-west from the very north of the Scandinavian peninsula.
From a strictly geographical perspective this terminology is clearly incorrect, as some regions ‘north of the mountains’ lie further to the south than the regions ‘south of the mountains’. Rather than being derived from compasses and maps, the terminology probably grew from a widespread consciousness of unity based on communication routes, landscape-type and living conditions within each of the two regions.
This division of western Scandinavia, which has ancient roots, was reflected in the way people identified themselves and each other. As late as the nineteenth century people from the west coast were called Nórdmenn, ‘men from the north’, by their countrymen on the other side of the mountains. To add to the confusion, those who lived ‘south of the mountains’ were called Austmenn, ‘men from the east’.Reference Helle2
This terminology can be traced back through the High Middle Ages to the Viking Age (ca. 790–1050). Ohthere, around AD 890, described to King Alfred of England the voyage from his homeland in northern Norway to the town Kaupang, by the mouth of the Oslofjord, and on to the town Haithabu near present-day Schleswig in Germany. Ohthere stated that he lived furthest north of all the Northmen and that Norðmanna land, ‘the land of the Northmen’, was narrow in the north and broad in the south. In some translations of Ohthere's account, Norðmaðr is understood to mean ‘Norwegian’,Reference Bately3 but this is inaccurate. Evidently, when using this term Ohthere was neither referring to a country nor a kingdom and its inhabitants, but rather he was identifying himself in the same manner as the people from the west and north still did a hundred years ago. He was referring to a geographic zone where the people, in addition to their many local identities, shared another one – they were Northmen, because they lived in the land north of the great mountains. At that time this was a geographic zone, not a political entity.
Before the Kingdom of Norway was formed in the tenth century there were several smaller polities within Norðmanna land. In Getica, Jordanes’ mid-sixth century history of the Goths, 28 tribes are listed in Scandinavia.Reference Lund4 By comparing the names of these with more recent records of the names of districts and regions, the lands of these and several other tribes may be identified. For instance, in Getica, the following names are listed: ‘Granii, Augandzi, […] Rugi, Arochi’. They correspond to the prefixes in the following regional names that are still in use: Grenland, Agder, Rogaland and Hordaland. These are neighbouring regions lying from the east towards the west along the southern coast of present-day Norway. Three of these regional names carry the suffix -land, which indicates that Grenland was the land of the Granii, Rogaland was the land of the Rugi, etc. In addition to the names listed in Getica, several other regional names have their roots in the names of tribes, such as Sogn (Sygnafylki in the Middle Ages), the land of the Sygni.
Not only do Jordanes’ tribal names fit the regional names, but these regions also correspond very closely with tribal areas in south-western Norway that professor Bjørn Myhre identified on the basis of his analysis of various high-status categories of archaeological finds from the Late Roman and Migration periods (c. AD 300–550).Reference Myhre5 The centres that he identified lie in the lands of the Granii, Augandzi, Rugi, Arochi and Sygni. As illustrated in Figure 1, the centres of these tribal areas are not located on the exposed coastline, but rather in the much more fertile areas of the fjords and inlands.
Professor Bjørn Myhre's map of high-status grave-finds – that is, those that contain bronze vessels, glasses and items of gold – from the period c. AD 300–550. Each find has been mapped as a square or circle, and where three or more overlap the shading is black (1). Where two overlap the shade is hatched (2), and no overlap is marked as a white circle or square (3). Present-day county borders are marked (4). For bibliographical reference, see Ref. 5.
How Norðvegr became Norway
In early-medieval Europe there was a general development from numerous small polities to fewer larger ones. Normally, a large polity was created by the dynasty of a polity taking control of neighbouring ones and forming a kingdom, some of which endured into the modern period.
The creation of the western Scandinavian kingdom, however, seems to have been of a different character. This is evident from its name. Many European countries have a prefix that denotes a tribe and a suffix that means ‘territory’. For instance Denmark means ‘the mark (land) of the Danes’: England means ‘the land of the Angles’, etc. But the Old Norse name of Norway, Norðvegr, is composed differently. The prefix simply means ‘north’, while the suffix means ‘way’.
This ‘way’ is no doubt the sailing route along the coast of western Scandinavia, running for more than 1000 km from Rogaland in the southwest to Lofoten, which lies well north of the Polar circle. The route is, for the most part, sheltered by thousands of islands, islets and reefs. Although the open sea outside can be rough, and the wind terrifying, it is safe to sail along the sheltered route. The name of this sailing route was Norðvegr, ‘the Northern way’, and it binds together the lands north of the mountains where the Northmen live.
Thus, the West-Scandinavian kingdom actually took its name from a communication route, the only such case in the world known to the author. The name's background is that, unlike the many kingdoms that were based on control of a territory, the kingdom of Norway was based on the control of the sea. The king of the sailing route was the king of the land. This is mirrored in the location of the five earliest royal manors, Urnes, Avaldsnes, Fitjar, Alrekstad and Seim (Figure 2), all of which are mentioned in skaldic poetry and sagas in connection with the first king of Norway, Harald Fairhair (Old Norse: Haraldr hárfagri), who came to power in the late ninth century and ruled until ca. 930. These manors are all located on islands or in bays along the sailing route, not on the fjords where Myhre's wealthy graves were found.
The five manors that are mentioned in the Old Norse literature in connection with Norway's first king, Harald Fairhair. As can be seen, they are all located near the main sailing route along the coast, marked by the black line. Redrawn by the author.
The outer coastline and the islands outside are rather rough and rocky, with good pasture and arable land being located in only a few places. These few places are where the royal manors are situated. In the fjords, just a few kilometres inland, the landscape opens up and large stretches of fertile land with deep soil occur, sheltered from the wind by surrounding mountains. Here, the climate is much more favourable for farming than on the outer coast. Further inland are valleys and, eventually, mountains, with resources of timber, game, fur, etc. As the distribution of the wealthy graves testifies, this is where the tribal aristocracies had their land and people. Their manors occupied the most fertile spots, surrounded by their people on neighbouring farms, from where they had access to the rich resources in the valley and mountain areas. Each tribe could live along the same fjord, as in Sogn, in valleys, like the Granii, in neighbouring and connected fjords and valleys, like the Arochi, or on a fertile plain, like most the Rugi did on the plain of Jæren.
Overland transport between the tribal areas was hindered by the mountains, and the most convenient way to travel was by sea. As a consequence, anyone travelling with some cargo outside of their tribal area would need to sail along the Norðvegr. This means that in this landscape a convenient key to gain authority over the tribal aristocracies would be to settle on the strategic points along this route with sufficient ships and men to be able to halt passing ships and make them pay homage, perhaps also duties. The king who could establish himself on several of these locations would be king of the Norðvegr, and thereby king of the land. While most kings at the time were land-kings, the king of Norway was a sjókonung, a sea-king, as reflected in the name of the country.
The most important of the five earliest royal manors was, undoubtedly, Avaldsnes, near the southern end of the sailing route. The manor is frequently mentioned in the sagas, and the archaeological finds from there are remarkable, spanning 3000 years from the earliest Bronze Age to the High Middle Ages, when King Håkon Håkonsson had a magnificent church built on the manor. This is where, according to Snorri Sturluson, the author of the most elaborate of the Royal sagas, the first king of the Kingdom of Norðvegr, Harald Fairhair, settled in the late ninth century following his victory over his rivals. Chieftains and petty-kings were associated with the area before him, but what seems to be novel is that he also possessed the four other royal manors along the southern part of the sailing route Norðvegr. Consequently, he was in a position to guarantee safe passage along that whole stretch to those who submitted to him. The five royal manors seem ideal for this. The local agricultural resources are sufficient to feed numerous people; they all have good harbours from where one can swiftly sail north and south. The five manors are located from Hordaland in the north to Rogaland in the south (Figures 1 and 2). This seems to be the core of the kingdom, from which he had some authority further north and east through allied petty-kings.
Avaldsnes and the other royal manors played a decisive role in the period when the Norwegian kingdom was expanded and consolidated – in the tenth and eleventh centuries. However, in the twelfth century and, in particular, the thirteenth century these manors lost their significance as royal strongholds to the towns, notably to Bergen – the High-Mediaeval capital of Norway. At that time, kings resided in towns and controlled both lands and seas from there.
Polities and Ships before the Viking Age
Archaeological finds testify that some manors along the sailing route Norðvegr were in the possession of the powerful many centuries before the time of Harald Fairhair. For instance the Avaldsnes area has exquisite finds spread over a period of 3000 years before the Viking Age. The top-quality finds date from times when there also was a leap in ship construction.
This indicates that in this part of the world a close connection existed between naval technology and political authority through the Bronze and Iron Ages. In-depth studies of this connection may reveal how and why warriors from these coasts over the centuries could build up the expertise in maritime warfare, which allowed them to raid with such efficiency the coasts of Britain, Ireland and Francia from the 790s onwards. Such studies are ongoing in the Avaldsnes Royal Manor Project, which conducted excavations at Avaldsnes in 2011–2012. In the following, some preliminary results from these excavations will be considered in the context of the naval history of Scandinavia.
The Scandinavian-type ship differs from the Mediterranean and the Continental by basically being a soft shell supported by some inner constructions. While most other European ship-types are constructed by first building a stiff skeleton and then covering the outside with planks, the Scandinavian ships were built by – from the keel – adding one plank to the other. As the hull was shaped, some inner constructions were added to supply stability. The Continental so-called carvel-built ship is stiff, while the Scandinavian clinker-built ship is flexible and much lighter. Such ships and boats are still being built on traditional shipyards along the coasts of Norway.
One can draw a straight evolutionary line from this type of ship and back to the simple dugouts of the Stone Age, hollowed out from a single log using stone axes. The first step along that line was taken c. 4000 years ago, when the first bronze axes arrived in Scandinavia. Using them, one could split logs into planks, and one could shape the planks into slim and flexible ship boards. Such boards were sown onto the sides of the dugout, thereby creating a more seaworthy vessel that could carry more cargo and cross open waters more safely. Numerous ships of this type are depicted on Bronze-Age rock carvings.
The first extraordinary finds from the rocky and windy Avaldsnes area date from around the time when the first bronze axes arrived in Scandinavia. Three hoards of precious flint tools have been retrieved from the soil – an extraordinary density. One of these hoards is the largest found in Scandinavia. Flint does not occur naturally in Norway, and these items were obviously quarried and shaped in the flint mines in Denmark and then shipped to the West-Scandinavian coast. Avaldsnes was apparently a place where such items were stored before they were shipped further north. This trade must have been controlled by the local aristocracy.
The likely reason why these rich flint finds should occur at Avaldsnes is the site's location by a narrow passage near the southern end of the sailing route Norðvegr. Their occurrence there should probably be connected to the contemporary development of plank-built ships. Such ships created a sufficient power-base for an aristocracy to establish itself on this island, which supplied perfect opportunities to control the sailing route. Richly furnished graves in huge mounds from the following centuries demonstrate the presence of this aristocracy. Fourteen such mounds arranged in a straight line were built at Reheia, about one kilometre west of the Avaldsnes manor site.
The next leap in ship technology happened around AD 200. After having been paddled for more than 2000 years, ships were now rowed. The longer ores allowed a higher freeboard; therefore ships could carry more cargo and cross rougher waters. The best preserved example of such a ship is the roughly. 20 m long Nydam ship excavated from a bog in southern Jutland.
At the time when ores were introduced, in the third century AD, a petty-king was entombed in the so-called Flaghaug at Avaldsnes. The 5 m high grave-mound, 40 m in diameter, was excavated in 1834, revealing fantastic finds. The grave is considered to be one of the richest male graves from the Roman Iron Age in Scandinavia. It contained several Roman bronze vessels, exquisite weaponry, a drinking horn, several gold rings; and the finest piece of them all – a neck ring weighing 600 g. It is without hinges and has been bent around its owner's neck to stay there, even into the grave (Figure 3).
The neck ring of solid gold found 1834 in the male grave in Flaghaug, Avaldsnes. It weighs about 600 g and has been fixed around the owner's neck. Copyright: Terje Tveit, Archaeological Museum, University of Stavanger.
The quality of the weaponry in the grave has few parallels. The only comparable find in Scandinavia is that which has been identified as belonging to the commander of an army of several hundred men which, probably after suffering defeat, had their weaponry and personal belongings sacrificed in a lake in Illerup Ådal near Århus, eastern Jutland. This parallel may give some indication as to the political position the man buried at Avaldsnes may have retained.
The recent excavations at Avaldsnes revealed several elements in what appears to be a high-status settlement from the period c. AD 200–600 (Figure 4). Roughly 50 m south of Flaghaug were unearthed the remains of a hall-building. In such buildings chieftains and petty-kings resided with their retinue. Both the mound and the hall lay on the edge of a plateau about 20 m above the sea, and therefore clearly visible from every ship that sailed the Norðvegr – an unmistakable display of power.
The main archaeological features from excavations at Avaldsnes. All the named features date from the period c. AD 200–600, except for the Bronze-Age mound. Copyright: The Avaldsnes Royal Manor Project, Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo.
Adding to this, at least two raised stones, the remaining one about 8 m high, stood between the mound and the hall, equally visible for travellers. These stones, among the very highest in Scandinavia, cannot be dated more closely than to somewhere in the period AD 200–600. A second mound, from the Bronze Age, lay about 50 m south of the hall. And just south of this mound was found what is believed to be the remains of a fortification – a palisade. Such fortifications have been found in great numbers, creating secure refuges on uninhabited hilltops. But until now, in western Scandinavia, they have not been found on Iron-Age settlement sites, such as at Avaldsnes. In eastern Scandinavia some 50 such fortified settlements have been identified.
While all these features were meant to be seen from ships sailing by, the multifunctional longhouse located further west of the plateau would be more or less unseen from the sea. Also rather hidden was a boathouse from the same period found in a sheltered bay just beneath the plateau. Neither the longhouse nor the boathouse were preserved in their full length, but other features show that both were of dimensions that support the impression of Avaldsnes being a high-status settlement in the period c. AD 200–600.
The Avaldsnes excavations also identified settlement remains from the Viking Period, but they are much more fragmentary than those from the previous few centuries. Until they are further analysed, we must rely on earlier grave-finds to supply evidence for the site's significance in the Viking Period.
Recently new light has been shed on Avaldsnes some decades before Harald Fairhair established his kingdom; that is, in the decades leading up to the first Viking raids on the British Isles and Ireland. Some 100 years ago, two ship-graves were excavated just north of the Avaldsnes settlement site, the so-called Storhaug and Grønhaug ships.Reference Lorange6 These were preserved in a much more fragmentary state than their better-known counterparts excavated in Vestfold, the Oseberg and Gokstad ships. Vestfold is located by the Oslofjord, that is, østafjells, ‘south of the mountains’. Recent dendrochronological investigations demonstrate that both of the Avaldsnes ships date to the same narrow period: the Storhaug ship was built around 770, and buried in 779, while the Grønhaug ship was built around 780, and buried ca. 790–795.Reference Stylegar and Bonde7
What is even more interesting is that dendrochronological data from the Oseberg ship, the construction of which took place about 820,Reference Bonde and Christensen8 have now been compared with those from the Storhaug and Grønhaug ships. The outcome is that the three ships were built in the same precise region. That this may be identified as the Avaldsnes region is strongly suggested by the fact that the wood from a small boat in the Storhaug mound, as well as from a stretcher-plank used during the construction of this mound, also originated from the same region as the ships.
From these facts, and from the distribution of oak in the Avaldsnes region, it is evident that each of these three ships – a rowing vessel, a sailing vessel, and one that cannot be firmly identified as either – was built in the fjords a few kilometres inland from Avaldsnes and within a period of 50 years. It seems very likely that the development of Viking-age sailing ships, which made raiding in the British Isles and Ireland feasible, took place in this region sometime around AD 800.
Epilogue
The warriors that swarmed ashore from their ships, and ravaged and plundered monasteries and settlements overseas, benefited from expertise developed over three millennia of naval warfare along the western Scandinavian coast. Their highly developed tactics, such as moving away fast before counter attacks could be mustered, was fully integrated with the properties of their ships, for example their light weight and swiftness. Sites such as Avaldsnes demonstrate that for many centuries the sea had been the Northmen's most important arena for gaining power and honour, during which they developed shipbuilding, seamanship and naval warfare to a level that was difficult to match for anyone in northern Europe. Ships were at the core of their military tactics and their identity as warriors.
The long history of a close connection between naval warfare and political power also forms the background for understanding the way the Norwegian kingdom was formed and named in the late ninth and tenth centuries. The saga authors of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries claimed that the roots of the Norwegian kingdom lay in Vestfold in Viken, the region that engulfs the Oslofjord. But this is evidently a construction designed to strengthen thirteenth-century Norwegian claims to Viken. What seems much more likely is that Viken was a disputed area, and that throughout the Viking Age its petty-kings developed shifting alliances with the west and south. The fact that the Oseberg ship was built in the west and ended up in Viken is probably the result of such an alliance. Indeed, it appears likely that one of the two women buried in the ship was given in wedlock to a Vestfold petty-king around AD 820, and the ship and its fantastic associated material accompanied her to the grave when she died in AD 834. The Viken petty-kings continued to play their game of power until Viken and the rest of eastern Norway – sønnafjels: the region south of the mountains – were firmly incorporated into the Norwegian kingdom by the end of the tenth century.
Dagfinn Skre's research spans a wide array of topics, in particular social and political structures, economy, urbanisation and settlement history. He has directed several research projects, most prominently the Kaupang Excavation Project which studied the only known Norwegian Viking town. Currently he is directing the Avaldsnes Royal Manor Project, which involves excavations of one of Norway's earliest royal manors. The project studies the formation of the Norwegian kingdom and of precursory polities through the first millennium AD. Skre is Professor of Iron- and Viking-Age Archaeology and a member of The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, The Royal Gustavus Adolphus Academy (Sweden), and the German Archaeological Institute.
