Prehistoric rock art of the type found in the British and Irish landscape is a strange and elusive beast. It confounds archaeological classification, being neither ‘monument’ nor ‘artefact’; it encompasses a spectrum of modifications to the natural rock surface from random scatters of peck-marks to deeply cut, complex and extensive abstract designs; and it frequently incorporates, elaborates and acknowledges natural geological forms and features. It represents an enduring record of a very different way of being in, and relating to, the world, which challenges our contemporary systems of interpretation.
An enormous variety of surfaces were selected for ‘decoration’. They vary in size from enormous outcrops and striking boulders to small, inconspicuous slabs and cobbles. Some are flat expanses of bedrock, others rise dramatically to the sky, and yet others are complex, curvaceous and multi-faceted. How are we to make sense of this plethora of ornamented rocks? Why were some carved and others apparently overlooked? Why in one valley and not the next? And what ‘rules’ dictated which motifs were used where (and when)?
These questions continue to intrigue and, for the most part, to baffle researchers. Approaches have evolved, with the last 20 years seeing a focus on high-resolution 3D recording, GIS analysis and even archaeoacoustics, alongside theoretical forays into phenomenology and animism. Many hypotheses appear to hold up—at least for the immediate area for which they were developed—but a general (as opposed to local) theory of British and Irish rock art has not yet emerged, if, indeed, such a single explanation exists.
In her doctoral study of the rock art landscapes of Rombalds Moor, West Yorkshire, Deacon reviews the evidence and presents valuable new perspectives. Her no-nonsense approach to previous research is refreshing. She carefully deconstructs prior literature, accepting nothing at face value and questioning several widely accepted assertions. Are we sure that rock art was made only in ‘elevated locations overlooking settled areas’ and ‘on the margins of fertile land’? Was it made only in the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods, or might it have Mesolithic roots?
The relatively small (50km2) and discrete area of Rombalds Moor contains a large concentration of 252 carved panels that have been extensively documented by members of local societies or by trained volunteers. Here, I confess an interest, having been involved in one such project, and it is gratifying to know that Deacon's new analysis makes some use of the material gathered. But her study does not rely simply on statistical evaluations and digital mapping. Rather, it benefits immensely from extensive ground-truthing and thoughtful personal engagements with both the rock art and the surrounding landscape—especially pertinent for discussions of viewsheds and of the physicality and materiality of the rocks. Her approach aims to encompass both the local environment and the belief systems of the communities who created the rock art. Applying insights from ethnography allows her to undertake a more intimate exploration of the physicality of making rock art and to add a human perspective to the equation.
Deacon focuses on the relationships between the rock art and its environment at four scales: ‘the whole moor’, ‘natural monuments in their large locales’, ‘small locales’ and ‘the individual rock’. She begins with the wide view, working down to single cup-marked panels, and uses her findings at each level both to re-interpret her previous analysis and to inform the next, carefully managing to avoid any circular arguments, and rejecting any hypotheses not supported by the evidence.
The study revolves around the identification of several prominent and impressive carved sites, interpreted as ‘natural monuments’. Deacon's realisation that these featured in the views from many much smaller rock art sites leads her to the concept of ‘large locales’, each having one of the natural monuments as its focus. Smaller groups, mostly of two or three carved stones (‘small locales’), are then revealed, as well as an alignment of five or six stones. There is also a suggestion that some stones were, in fact, moved into position and that rock art landscapes may not be as ‘natural’ as previously assumed.
Deacon contrasts the large, monumental sites (some of which, she notes, would have been extremely difficult and dangerous to carve), with the many inconspicuous, ground-level slabs, often with only a single cup mark. These, she suggests, were made in homage to the monumental sites, perhaps by kneeling ‘pilgrims’ as a mark of acknowledgement. In this scenario, she proposes, the highly visible natural monuments were possibly decorated by specialists who gained respect by placing themselves in risky positions.
Her analysis of the rock art, together with her review of ethnographic data, leads Deacon to propose an animistic interpretation in which the world and all its elements are agents within a tripartite universe—a cosmology she believes had roots in the British Mesolithic, citing shamanistic practices evident, for example, at Star Carr. But she is careful to emphasise that her findings and her resulting hypothesis relate specifically to this particular group of rock art and that “interpretations of rock-art which seem contradictory may all be valid, and we should not necessarily expect to find one overarching ‘explanation’ for rock-art” (p. 18).
The process of converting a doctoral dissertation into an accessible and engaging publication for a wide audience can be challenging, but Deacon succeeds on several levels. Her text is well written and logically organised, leading the reader through her own journey of discovery towards a balanced review of her findings and conclusions. The publication is also beautifully and appropriately illustrated. It will no doubt be devoured by knowledgeable enthusiasts—and there are many—of this fascinating and relatively accessible part of our heritage. But it also offers new perspectives, well-reasoned arguments and valuable theoretical insights. Although these are applied here at a very local level, they are surely worthy of wider consideration by all researchers of British rock art.
