Musicianship in the secondary school at KS3 (11–14)

The purpose of the National Curriculum Framework in England (NC) (DfE, 2013) is that those who engage with music are frequently involved in the integration of musical activities and it argues that ‘a high quality music education should engage and inspire pupils to develop a love of music and their talent as musicians . . .’ (DfE, 2013: KS3 Music). Notable is the use of the word ‘musician’ and the implication that all young people are, or can be, musicians; further, that the Subject Content (ibid.) is designed with the intention to seek to develop musicians. Mills (Reference MILLS2005) puts the even more forthright view that ‘we teach music in school primarily because we want children – all children – to grow as musicians . . . music is not a gift but a right’ (Mills, Reference MILLS2005, p. 5). Despite this, however, music has been demonstrated to be problematic in schools (Saunders, Reference SAUNDERS2008; Welch et al., Reference WELCH, PURVES, HARGREAVES and MARSHALL2010; Spruce & Matthews, Reference SPRUCE, MATTHEWS, Philpott and Spruce2012). There are young people for whom secondary music education does not meet their needs. The more musically orientated find it necessary to also participate in a range of additional in and out-of-school activities (e.g. instrument lessons) (Wright, Reference WRIGHT, Philpott and Spruce2012), whilst the less musically orientated do not seem to make significant progress (Ofsted, 2012) and find that much of the music presented to them is not representative of their musical interests and needs (Saunders & Welch, Reference SAUNDERS and WELCH2012; Wright Reference WRIGHT, Philpott and Spruce2012). Hallam (Reference HALLAM2006) suggests that taking on the identity of a musician requires a commitment to music which derives from motivation, self-efficacy and some ownership of the musical repertoire and peer-groupings in which they participate, yet it has also been argued (Savage, Reference SAVAGE2013) that the school curriculum tends to be based on the ‘delivery model’ in which ‘teachers are the white-van curriculum delivery service, dropping off pre-ordained packages of curriculum content within a set timetable of deliveries’ (p. 85).

Saunders and Welch (Reference SAUNDERS and WELCH2012) argue that young people access music-making and develop as musicians in a variety of ways: (a) formal education in the school classroom, (b) the school's extra-curricular programmes, (c) instrumental/vocal specialist teaching, and (d) from within their communities, e.g. local music groups and peer-to-peer music making. The more committed musicians will frequently participate in many/all of these learning contexts (Wright, Reference WRIGHT, Philpott and Spruce2012), though classroom music can be the least useful in meeting personal developmental needs (ibid.; Saunders, Reference SAUNDERS2008; Spruce & Matthews, Reference SPRUCE, MATTHEWS, Philpott and Spruce2012). This may be because they see the classroom experience as lacking authenticity: that it does not match their aspirations or expectations of the musician they wish to be and those they observe in out-of-school contexts (Bibby, Reference BIBBY, Finney and Laurence2013). It is common for those students participating in music-making outside of formal education to tend to be the most motivated to grow as musicians: ‘it was those pupils involved in the ‘extended’ curriculum that were most likely to opt to study music at GCSE level’ (Bray, Reference BRAY2000, in Saunders, Reference SAUNDERS2008). The uptake at GCSE is one of the weakest for any subject area at around 7–8% of the total annual cohort (Bray, Reference BRAY2000; Welch, Reference WELCH, Hargreaves, Miell and MacDonald2012). Such data would suggest that, for the remaining 93% of students, many of whom do not participate in the extended curriculum, music at KS3 is not fulfilling its purpose of seeking to develop young musicians (Welch, Reference WELCH, Hargreaves, Miell and MacDonald2012).

The inevitable result of the issues described here is that some young people, particularly the more musically able wishing to seriously grow as musicians, will frequently need to supplement (even replace) what they are offered in school with a range of additional activities and learning, such as community music-making and instrumental/vocal tuition (Wright, Reference WRIGHT, Philpott and Spruce2012). This may reinforce the social stratification that Wright (Reference WRIGHT, Philpott and Spruce2012) suggests is all too common in music education:

Furthermore and as stated above, there can be issues with the authenticity of the musical experience received by young people in school, in that activities may be ‘divorced’ from the ‘real world’ of the professional musician (Green, Reference GREEN2002, Reference GREEN2008; Bibby, Reference BIBBY, Finney and Laurence2013). Teachers, themselves, are largely educated in the Western classical tradition (York, Reference YORK2001; Rogers, Reference ROGERS2002) and can tend towards less secure knowledge and expertise in other genres and traditions (Saunders & Welch, Reference SAUNDERS and WELCH2012).

It is principally how far some of the characteristics of a musician are developed in secondary school classroom music lessons, and the nature of the learning experience, which are at the centre of the research study described in this paper. There have been studies which have sought to examine student perceptions of their own musicianship (e.g. Saunders, Reference SAUNDERS2008) and some on the role of teacher identity and biography in shaping music teaching and learning (e.g. Welch et al., Reference WELCH, PURVES, HARGREAVES and MARSHALL2010; Dalladay, Reference DALLADAY2014), but less on the way in which teaching and learning seeks to develop young musicians. This current study is limited by its size and its exploratory nature, and the fact that it has not consulted the young people themselves, but it seeks to examine some of the issues surrounding the development of musicianship within classroom music and to provide a potential stimulus to further research into this area.

The learning contexts and competencies of musicians

There would seem to be an overwhelming consensus in research, literature and the view of society that the ability to play a musical instrument is key to being a musician (e.g. Rogers, Reference ROGERS2002; Hargreaves, Miel & MacDonald, Reference HARGREAVES, MIELL, MacDONALD, MacDonald, Hargreaves and Miell2002; Lamont, Reference LAMONT, MacDonald, Hargreaves and Miell2002; Hallam, Reference HALLAM2006; Müllensiefen et al., Reference MÜLLENSIEFEN, GINGRAS and STEWART2011). In a survey into the work, education and training of professional musicians by Youth Music (Rogers, Reference ROGERS2002), 84% of the respondents had the musical skill of ‘player’ – by far the most cited skill/role of musicians completing the survey, with the next highest response being 50% as ‘tutor’. Young people themselves also believe that playing an instrument is important to being a musician: 21% of boys and 26% of girls reported that they were having instrument lessons at school (Hargreaves et al., Reference HARGREAVES, MIELL, MacDONALD, MacDonald, Hargreaves and Miell2002). Singing, too, is considered to be an important skill in music (Mills, Reference MILLS2005; Welch, Reference WELCH and McPherson2006) and, additionally, might be regarded as more ‘inclusive’ than learning to play a musical instrument (Bannan, Reference BANNAN and Spruce2002). Whilst there are other characteristics of a musician, as discussed in the introduction to this paper (for example, as a composer), the literature points to the common perception that being a musician means that one can perform (Lamont, Reference LAMONT, MacDonald, Hargreaves and Miell2002; Müllensiefen et al., Reference MÜLLENSIEFEN, GINGRAS and STEWART2011).

Drawing on literature and research by various writers already discussed in this paper and others, it is possible to design a working set of competencies required of the musician; though it is likely that only the most fully formed musician will possess all or most and, therefore, that the developing musician will be exhibiting signs of increasing competence in a selection of them. These competencies (below) have derived and been compiled from both a study of relevant literature and debate with trainee teachers on a Post-Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) programme at an English initial teacher education (ITE) provider (Dalladay, Reference DALLADAY2014). They will become the focus of this research study. They are presented in no particular sequence.

Twelve competencies which can be associated with musicians:

1. i. The ability to perform on a musical instrument with confidence and appropriate technique;

2. ii. The ability to develop original, imaginative compositions;

3. iii. The ability to improvise with confidence;

4. iv. The ability to use musical terminology in appraising music;

5. v. The ability to read from staff notation fluently;

6. vi. The ability to sing with accurate intonation;

7. vii. The ability to use ICT to develop and enhance musical ‘events’;

8. viii. The ability to perform music ‘by ear’;

9. ix. The ability to harmonise melodies applying stylistic conventions;

10. x. A general knowledge of a range of music from different times, traditions and cultures;

11. xi. The ability to discuss, write and/or draw about the expressive content of music;

12. xii. The ability to aurally analyse the relationship between sounds (aural discrimination).

In like manner, it is also possible to draw up a list of the contexts in which musical development would seem to take place.

Twelve contexts from/in which musicianship can develop:

1. i. From a teacher (class and/or instrument);

2. ii. Through performing with others;

3. iii. From considering role models and musicians we admire;

4. iv. From family and/or friends;

5. v. Through regular practice;

6. vi. By being a teacher to others;

7. vii. Through developing our own musical ideas / composing;

8. viii. Through attending live musical performance (such as of peers, at concerts/gigs, etc.);

9. ix. Through academic studies (gaining qualifications);

10. x. Through listening to recorded music;

11. xi. Through performing to an audience;

12. xii. Through jamming / improvising / developing musical ideas with others ‘by ear’.

Research design

The two ‘sets’ of statements above – musical competencies and learning contexts – form the basis for the research described in this paper. Originally each set consisted of ten statements and, through further discussion, reading and piloting, they were expanded to the 12 for each set listed above.

In phase one of the research, participants ranked the statements according to which, in their view, was most important (ranked in 1^st position) to the least (12^th) for each of the two sets. The mean total data set for each of these two sorting activities (as they became known) was calculated and ranked. The research sample consisted of 39 participants, made up of 29 secondary school music teacher trainees and ten experienced music teachers from secondary schools in partnership with the training provider.

In phase two, a selection of 11 participants (six trainees and five teachers) from those who had responded to the sorting activities were observed teaching one music lesson each and ten of these (five trainees and five teachers) were interviewed afterwards (phase three of the research). This group is termed the Core Participant Group (CPG). Written notes from the observations were made on a specially designed observation schedule detailing teacher activity, pupil activity and outcomes, and focusing on anything observed which related to the 12 musical competencies and 12 learning contexts. Also on this schedule, a time-line was plotted over the course of the lesson ‘measuring’ the time spent focusing on any of the musical competencies and learning contexts. Each of these were ‘scored’ (termed the ‘Observed Significance Score’ [OSS]) from 1–3 according to the following criteria:

1. 1. Evident in the lesson, but not a major feature; for example, the activity is short and/or cursory;

2. 2. Evident in the lesson with a degree of significance, but the competency/context is not fully observed; for example, pupils sing but with little accuracy of intonation or emphasis on its improvement;

3. 3. The musical competency/context is strongly evident.

A mean of the OSSs was calculated and these, in turn, were ranked so that comparison with the sorting activity data could be made.

The semi-structured interviews that made up phase three of the research covered the same themes with each participant and included similar questions for discussion (Bryman, Reference BRYMAN2012). They were audio recorded, with the participants’ permission, and then a ‘semi-transcript’ made (not a full word-by-word transcript) with timecoding so that, where necessary, it was straightforward to reference back to the recording for the precise wording. These themes have included memories of early musical beginnings, music education, developing interests in teaching, important competencies in the development of musicians, and so on. Some investigation of what had been noted in the lesson observation was also part of the interview, such as why a particular approach had been taken.

Supplementing the data from the sorting activities, observations and interviews was a survey (phase four of the research) conducted with 64 participants across a range of teachers, trainees and undergraduate music students across five Higher Education Institutions. The survey consisted of 60 statements, with a 7-point Likert scale for responses (1 = I don't agree; 7 = I do agree), covering six themes: ‘My own musical education’; ‘Perceptions of one's own musicianship’; ‘My musical influences’; ‘My musical activities’; ‘My views on musicality/musicianship’; and ‘My views on music education’. The survey facilitated a consideration of the views from a wider population sample on education, values and beliefs.

Findings: Learning contexts

Participants (n = 39) ranked the 12 statements detailed above into order of significance in response to the question, ‘What people or activities contributed most to your own development as a musician?’ Table 1 shows the mean ranking across the participant group.

Table 1.

Sorting activity: Musical learning contexts

Mean rankings of the total participant group (1 high, 12 low)

n= 39 participants with some variation noted in the final column

There will be little surprise to many musicians concerning the placing of ‘performing with others’ and ‘regular music practice’ in the top two positions (Table 1) as they will frequently make music with fellow musicians in orchestras, bands, choirs, and so on (Hallam, Reference HALLAM and Barrett2011) and, in order to gain some proficiency, will devote many hours of practice (Lehmann & Gruber, Reference LEHMANN, GRUBER, Ericsson, Charness, Feltovich and Hoffman2006; McPherson et al., Reference McPHERSON, DAVIDSON and FAULKENER2012). In interview, several participants commented on the significance of rehearsing and performing music with others; for example, one discussed the importance of developing musically within the brass-band tradition, and another stated that he continues to perform in an ensemble for events such as weddings at weekends.

It is also noted in these data (Table 1) that teachers are perceived as significant in influencing the development of musicians. However, it is, perhaps, more surprising that ‘family and friends’ are comparatively low, in sixth position, despite the literature in general pointing towards the positive influence of these (e.g. Harrison & McCullough, Reference HARRISON and McCULLOUGH2011; Borthwick & Davidson, Reference BORTHWICK, DAVIDSON, Macdonald, Hargreaves and Miell2012; McPherson et al., Reference McPHERSON, DAVIDSON and FAULKENER2012). In interviews with the CPG, too, the responses suggest a strong influence from family with many family members also being musicians (in seven of the ten). In the survey (n = 64) 41.2% indicated that they had at least one musical parent and 68.8%, a musical sibling. However, 77.8% indicated that they ‘grew up in a musical home’.

A desire to compose would seem to be less significant in the development of musicianship. Composing was ranked in 11^th position (Table 1) and jamming/improvising in tenth; and in the survey, 58.8% claimed to have composed music for public use. Hargreaves suggests that musicians frequently work ‘on the run’, not only as performers but also as composers (Hargreaves, Reference HARGREAVES1986, p. 148). Paynter (Reference PAYNTER1982) supports the view that devising music is central to developing musicianship and an understanding of how music ‘works’. Devising work frequently plays a significant part in school music lessons (five out of the 11 lessons observed as part of this study included composing and/or improvising) and it is a central part of the National Curriculum (DfE, 2013), but teachers seem to be a little at a loss as to how to guide pupils in the task – the survey suggesting that a little over half the respondents have any experience in the activity (58.8%).

Findings: Musical competencies

Once again, participants ranked the 12 statements relating to musical competencies into order of perceived significance in response to the question, ‘In your view, what competencies are the most important in developing musicianship?’ Table 2 shows the mean ranking across the whole of the participant group.

Table 2.

Sorting activity: Musical competencies

Mean rankings of the total participant group (1 high, 12 low)

n = 39 with some variation noted in the final column

Performing on an instrument, as suggested by the literature discussed earlier, ranks highest as the chief indicator of, and competency required for, the musician. What is possibly more contentious surrounds the competencies of performing by ear and from notation. Whilst ‘performing music by ear’ (being able to hear music and perform it based on that hearing, rather than being reliant on reading from notation) is a skill of aural perception, for the purposes of this study, it has been separated from ‘aural analysis’ as a distinct skill particularly valued by some, such as popular musicians (Green, Reference GREEN2002). In the survey (n = 64), 55% considered that musicians should possess this skill. However, the competency was placed high (second position) in the sorting activity. It is noted that Western Classical Musicians (WCM) considered this to be significantly less important than those from the Other-than-Classical Musicians (OCM)Footnote ¹ or mixed (33%:63%). The possible reason for this is that WCMs tend to prioritise notation-based and analytical skills whilst OCMs place greater emphasis on memorisation and improvisation (Hargreaves et al., Reference HARGREAVES, MIELL, MacDONALD, MacDonald, Hargreaves and Miell2002; Welch et al., Reference WELCH2008). With reference to notation skills, a minority of respondents (15%) consider this to be a particularly important competency for musicians though this does contrast with the much higher 56.3% of the survey respondents who believe that secondary school students should be taught how to read music.

During interviews it became clear that the CPG generally supported the view of the pre-eminence of an ability to be able to perform on a musical instrument in order to grow as a musician, though one participant did respond that it was his view that it is possible to be a ‘fantastic musician and not play a note’ – as in employing the use of ICT, for example. The ability to be able to perform by ear was not, however, raised in interviews, though just three of the ten members of the CPG were principally trained in genres other than the Western classical tradition which would have involved some extensive use of playing by ear (e.g. in traditional and contemporary popular genres).

Composing, which appears as both a learning context and a musical competency, seems to offer an interesting contrast in the results of the sorting activities. In general, it was considered a fairly important musical competency (fifth in ranking, with improvising – a form of more spontaneous composing – at sixth), whilst as a context for developing musicianship it was ranked much lower as detailed in the previous section of this paper. Whilst there seems to be some acknowledgement that being involved in devising original music is important for musicians, several have not either participated in the activity much in developing their own musicianship or have had few opportunities to develop the skill (a little over half of the survey respondents, as mentioned above).

Ideology and practice

In comparing the values of the research participants of what they felt were important contextual and experiential factors in the development of musicians (Tables 1 and 2) with what is covered in the classroom, there are some differences of emphasis (Table 3).

Table 3.

A comparison of the perceived importance of musical competencies and learning contexts with observed significance scores (OSS) in class music lessons

In the rankings, 1 = high, 12 = low.

In relation to the ‘Learning Contexts’ data, ‘regular music practice’ is considered to be important in the development of musicianship but it appears to be less evident in the classroom. This may be a case of insufficient time available to allow the students the opportunity to re-visit tasks on a frequent basis. It is the case that just one lesson was observed of each participant but Ofsted (2012) supports this view in finding that time and timetabling for music had become an issue in many secondary schools. Data collected across all the observed lessons in the current study suggest that, on average, 57% of the time available was devoted to the development of any one or more of the musical competencies with the rest of the time being largely taken up with classroom and school routines (e.g. setting and reviewing targets, considering the learning objectives for the lesson, class management). Another aspect of the learning contexts in which there is a significant difference between perceived value and classroom practice is in ‘academic musical studies’ (e.g. learning about music), moving upwards from 12^th position in the sorting activity to eighth position noted in the observations of teaching.

In respect of ‘Musical Competencies’, it is notable that the relative importance of musical terminology, having a general knowledge of a range of music and, most strikingly, the use of ICT (Information and Communication Technology), seem to take on more significance in practice than in the values of the teachers. In the case of the use of ICT to develop and enhance music-making, the sorting activity data suggests that most participants consider it to be rather low in importance (ranked in 12^th position) yet, in teaching and learning in practice, it would seem to take much more significance (fourth position). In many schools, significant investment has been made in the provision for music technology and much of the working space of classrooms in several of the schools visited is taken up with computers and keyboards. It is to be presumed, therefore, that there is a natural desire to make use of that investment and equipment wherever possible, though not always with sufficient consideration of the most effective use of it to develop musical learning (Ofsted, 2012).

Aspects of musical competencies which would seem to have ranked highly in the sorting activity but less so in practice include improvising, singing, aural development and the ability to recognise the expressive content of music. One of the largest differences between the two rankings is in relation to singing, generally considered to be an important competency – ranked in third position. However, little singing was observed in lessons and, where it did take place, an OSS of no higher that ‘1’ was awarded: little attempt was made to develop quality. Whilst just one lesson was observed of each participant, comments made in interviews also suggest that there is some reluctance to include singing activity with any emphasis on its development. For example, one participant admitted that he was not always ‘fussy’ enough about the quality of the singing. These findings would appear to reflect research by Ofsted (2012) who report that ‘singing was inadequate – or simply not happening at all – in 41 of the 90 schools inspected’ (Ofsted, 2012, p. 31).