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The Digital Humanities and Nineteenth-Century Music: An Introductory Overview

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 February 2020

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Heather Platt*
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The digital humanities have grown to encompass multiple disciplines; they embrace everything from online resources that have the potential to democratize scholarship to computational approaches that allow a higher order analysis of large datasets. That the digital humanities has significantly influenced musicology is evidenced by the number of leading journals, including the Journal of the American Musicological Society, Notes, Journal of the Society of American Music and Nineteenth Century Music Review, that regularly review digital resources and by the increasing use of the tag ‘digital musicology’. This special issue of Nineteenth Century Music Review (NCMR) and this introduction reflect a broad definition of the digital humanities; they embrace digital archives, born-digital projects, and studies employing computational methodologies and tools.

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Nineteenth-Century Music Review , Volume 18 , Special Issue 1: The Digital Humanities and Nineteenth-Century Music , April 2021 , pp. 3 - 18
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press, 2020

The digital humanities have grown to encompass multiple disciplines; they embrace everything from online resources that have the potential to democratize scholarship to computational approaches that allow a higher order analysis of large datasets.Footnote 1 That the digital humanities has significantly influenced musicology is evidenced by the number of leading journals, including the Journal of the American Musicological Society, Notes, Journal of the Society of American Music and Nineteenth Century Music Review, that regularly review digital resources and by the increasing use of the tag ‘digital musicology’.Footnote 2 This special issue of Nineteenth Century Music Review (NCMR) and this introduction reflect a broad definition of the digital humanities; they embrace digital archives, born-digital projects, and studies employing computational methodologies and tools.Footnote 3

This NCMR issue brings together projects that represent a variety of ways in which the digital humanities is impacting the study of nineteenth-century music. The first two articles, ‘Digital Methods for the Study of the Nineteenth-Century Orchestra’, by Cayenna Ponchione-Bailey and Eric Clarke, and ‘Digital Editions and the Creative Work of the Performer’, by John Rink, explore contrasting aspects of the study of performance. The following two articles concern Big Data research methodologies. ‘The Expression of Self and Grief in the Nineteenth Century: An Analysis through Distant Readings’, by Elizabeth Monzingo and Daniel Shanahan, demonstrates the type of computational methodologies used to analyse Big Data in other disciplines of the digital humanities. In contrast, ‘Seeing More Clearly’, by Sarah Fuchs, challenges the usefulness of the types of visualizations that are particularly prized by scholars of Big Data and are often employed to analyse networks of related people or concepts. In general, the articles highlight the strengths and promises of research assisted by technology, but they also point to a variety of limitations. Some of these are also touched on in the review essay ‘Digital Humanities and Nineteenth Century Music: Some Perspectives and Examples from Latin America’, by José Manuel Izquierdo and Fernanda Vera, and ‘Sheet Music Round Up’, a review of US sheet music repositories by Andrea Cawelti.

The following discussion establishes the contexts for these articles and reviews by surveying the most significant resources, projects and trends in the application of the digital humanities to nineteenth-century music. In surveying some of the major digital repositories and aggregators, including those encompassing material from a wide variety of time periods, I will reference a cross-section of born-digital projects that focus on particular topics within the Romantic era. I will then consider studies of the performance of nineteenth-century music, computational approaches to analysing corpora comprised of music or text, and visualizations of data.

Digital Repositories, Aggregators and Projects.

During the last decade numerous museums and libraries have digitized their manuscripts and theoretical treatises as well as publications and audio recordings that are no longer subject to copyright. These digitized collections have had a more significant impact on scholars of nineteenth-century music than have any other aspect of the digital humanities. Digital archives such as VIFA (the Virtual Library of Musicology), Gallica, Internet Culturale (a catalogue and digital collection from Italian libraries, www.internetculturale.it) and Polona (resources from the National Library of Poland and other institutions, http://polona.pl) are particularly attractive because they provide users with one search engine that simultaneously accesses sources held by a variety of institutions.Footnote 4

Not all museums and libraries are affiliated with aggregators such as Gallica, and their holdings can be accessed only by their own search engines. In addition to VIFA's ‘Digital Library’ section, Stanford University's Digital Resources for Musicology (DRM) and RISM,Footnote 5 Princeton University's Digital Scores: A Guide to Online Notated Music Sources provides a directory of digital archives of manuscripts and printed scores.Footnote 6 These range from well-known institutions in Austria and Germany to those that are likely less familiar such as the National Library of Estonia. Libraries across the globe are attempting to digitize their holdings, and Izquierdo and Vera's essay ‘Digital Humanities and Nineteenth Century Music’ surveys some of the most significant digitization projects in Latin America, as well as some of the challenges that confront their creation.

DRM lists and describes over 300 digital resources.Footnote 7 One of its many advantages over other aggregators is that instead of just providing one listing for each large library, such as the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, it provides links to numerous curated collections. For instance, there's a listing for the National Library of Russia's Music Gifts for the Russian Emperors, and separate listings for collections owned by the Library of Congress, including African American Band Music & Recordings, 1883–1923. DRM also provides easy access to focused digital projects such as Hugh MacDonald's Bizet Catalog and Charles McGuire's Musical Festivals Database;Footnote 8 in addition to numerous resources, such as historical maps, recordings and newspapers as well as datasets housed at the Internet Archive (archive.org), and, for scholars working with Big Data, the ‘Large Humanities Digital Corpora’.

The Online Resources for Music Scholars, created by Harvard's Loeb Music Library, is also a valuable aid, but it has an entirely different format using Pinboard.Footnote 9 As a result, an organized list of all of the digital resources is not immediately visible to the user, but a search using the tag ‘19th_century’ results in links to over 100 digital projects and resources. Further searching using a variety of other tags and search terms located additional projects, for example, Prague Concert Life, 1850–1881.Footnote 10 The Pinboard and DRM enable readers to search descriptions and tags/keywords that give an indication of the content of digital archives. Searching for Rossini at the Pinboard, for example, led to the location of two scores by the composer that are available at The Classical String Quartet, 1770–1840, a project providing digitized parts of ‘rare and unusual publications’ of string quartets housed at Duke University Libraries.Footnote 11 A similar search at DRM located a digital collection of early nineteenth-century operas performed in Paris, a collection of early piano rolls that included a 1921 recording of part of the William Tell Overture and a reference to Rossini in a thematic catalogue for Johan Peter Emilius Hartmann (1805–1900).

Harvard's Pinboard includes numerous tags that lead to tweets and other types of online postings discussing the digital humanities, including ones addressing the sustainability of digital projects. Searches also identify websites that are unlikely to be included in other aggregators because they are neither archives or digital-born projects. For instance, there are a number of postings that point to Transforming Musicology, a collaborative Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) Digital Transformations project. Two of its ten research projects dealt with nineteenth-century music – one concerned the reception and perception of Wagner's leitmotives and another concert ephemera, such as programmes.Footnote 12 Both of these projects will be expanded during a newly funded venture titled Unlocking Musicology. A multi-media digital companion will be created for Laurence Dreyfus's project on leitmotives, and a newly created product will allow researchers to navigate smoothly between the data of Transforming Musicology's concert ephemera and the New York Philharmonic's Leon Levy Digital Archives.Footnote 13

A variety of institutions and libraries provide more focused or less ambitious introductions to digital musicology that are none the less highly valuable. Duke University Libraries houses one such site.Footnote 14 It directs researchers to tools used to create digital products, such as the Music Encoding Initiative (MEI) and Augmented Notes, which facilitates the use of scores and audio on websites. It also lists 19 digital projects from Tinctorus to Jazz, some of which are not listed by the main aggregators. These include websites dedicated to Teresa Carreño and to songs composed by, sung by, or on the subject of Victorian women.Footnote 15 Along with MUGI: Musik und Gender im Internet, these projects are particularly noteworthy because many of the digital-born projects are dominated by canonical male composers.Footnote 16

None of the aggregators and websites cited above lists all of the digital resources and projects concerning nineteenth-century music. While this is no doubt frustrating to researchers, it is somewhat understandable, because assembling and maintaining aggregators is extremely time consuming. Aside from locating digitized projects, one of the challenges for the creators of resources such as DRM is dealing with the somewhat ephemeral nature of online projects. The challenges posed by institutions redesigning their websites and changing their urls, as well as their inability to continue funding of established and valuable sites such as the Sheet Music Consortium, are briefly considered by Cawelti in ‘Sheet Music Round Up’. Along similar lines, Rink discusses short-lived digital editions and apps. A more common problem concerns websites that are created as part of a funded project. Once the funding period is concluded the website remains, but frequently the scholars do not clearly state that no further data or outcomes are being posted. Similarly, projects such as Francophone Music Criticism that are rebranded with a new url sometimes remain online without any information directing users to the new site.Footnote 17

The digital humanities have influenced music scholars across the globe; and there is a wide range of organizations supporting this field, including the Digital Humanities in the Nordic Countries (http://dig-hum-nord.eu/) and Journées d'Informatique Musicale (http://jim.afim-asso.org). For those of us who do not have convenient access to world-class libraries, these online resources have opened up new avenues of research. In this way, digitized archives have the potential to democratize scholarship, all the more so because most are open access. Nevertheless, scholars in developing regions such as Latin America and Africa encounter significant barriers in both the creation and use of the latest tools and resources the digital humanities has to offer.Footnote 18

Performance Studies

Whereas the preceding section surveys resources and studies that are hosted online, the following sections consider projects in which scholars are employing technology to create and analyse data. The study of performance is one of the most successful applications of the digital humanities to nineteenth-century music. Participants in this field include those studying historical instruments, acoustics and performance spaces, as demonstrated by the work of Tom Beghin and Braxton B. Boren,Footnote 19 as well as scholars studying historical recordings and utilizing technologies such as MIDI to analyse performances by contemporary musicians.Footnote 20 Many of the eminent scholars in the field of performance studies, including Eric Clarke and Nicholas Cook, also led the re-emergence of empirical musicology. Clarke and Cook have both published insightful essays outlining the development of the study of recordings; they explain the field's initial concentration on piano music (especially that of the nineteenth century) and on issues of timing. Both acknowledge some of the shortcomings or challenges of this work, in particular the need to consider the context, including auditors’ and performers’ verbal responses to performances and historical sources such as first-hand accounts of nineteenth-century performances.Footnote 21 The first two essays in this special issue of NCMR exemplify two contrasting topics related to performance: Ponchione-Bailey and Clarke demonstrate digital methods of analysing orchestral performances, while Rink reviews digital editions of music and envisions a type of digital critical edition that would best serve performers.

Clarke and Rink lead projects within the AHRC Research Centre for Musical Performance as Creative Practice (CMPCP).Footnote 22 This five-year, multi-project centre is a successor to the AHRC Research Centre for the History and Analysis of Recorded Music (CHARM), a five-year project that began in 2004.Footnote 23 CHARM's website includes a discography and access to almost 5,000 sound files of historical recordings, in addition to brief descriptions of the centre's main projects: ‘Expressive gesture and style in Schubert song Performance’, ‘Recording business and performance, 1925–32’, ‘Style, performance and meaning in Chopin's mazurkas’, and an exploration of nineteenth-century solo piano music focusing on ‘performance motifs’.Footnote 24 These projects employ a diverse array of technologies, including software such as Sonic Visualiser, that have been adopted by other scholars.Footnote 25

CHARM resulted in an impressive array of seminal publications, including Daniel Leech-Wilkinson's ebook The Changing Sound of Music: Approaches to Studying Recorded Musical Performances and The Cambridge Companion to Recorded Music, which includes two articles of particular relevance to scholars of nineteenth-century music: Cook's ‘Methods for Analyzing Recordings’ and Leech-Wilkinson's ‘Recordings and Histories of Performance Style’.Footnote 26 Studies of performance by Leech-Wilkinson and Rink, among others, are predicated on the position that the meaning of music (including an understanding of its style) is dependent on its sound.

In contrast to CHARM's emphasis on recordings of piano music, Ponchione-Bailey and Clarke's article in this issue of NCMR focuses on orchestral performance practices and analyses live performances. It employs innovative technology to explore the coordination of the musicians within an orchestra, both with and without a conductor. In addition to quantitative measures of timings, the authors consider the perceptions of the players and evaluations of a group of listeners. This study introduces topics and techniques that future researchers could further develop as they seek to enrich our understanding of orchestral performance. Rink's discussion of digital editions and Monzingo and Shanahan's corpus study are similarly forward-looking.

Corpus Studies – Music

One of the best-known aspects of the Digital Humanities is the study of Big Data, that is, computational analysis of substantial bodies of data. In contrast, the digital humanities in music, and particularly many of the performance studies, deal with relatively small numbers of compositions or recordings (though to be sure such studies can create considerable amounts of data). Proponents of Big Data research and distant readings in other disciplines have argued that such studies will generate new types of questions and take into account works that are not part of the canon; and music scholars including Cook and David Huron have anticipated that computational methodologies, especially when applied in a ‘data rich’ environment, will ‘present a significant opportunity for disciplinary renewal’.Footnote 27 Nevertheless, it would seem that scholars analysing nineteenth-century compositions by applying computational methodologies to large numbers of recordings or scores are some way from realizing such novel results. Indeed, to date studies of recordings of world and popular musics have made greater gains in Big Data research than have studies of Romantic music. In general, few studies of post-1750 classical music have moved beyond the proof-of-concept stage.

Recently, Stephen Cottrell briefly outlined the types of ‘Big Music Data’ research that could be undertaken using the software under development at London's Digital Music Lab.Footnote 28 Whereas studies employing recordings to analyse performance often centre on close readings, Cottrell argued for the development of distant analyses. At the same time, he acknowledged the considerable challenges posed by this type of study, including the need to work with digitized recordings and uniform metadata for those recordings; the computational knowledge required of the researchers; and perhaps also musicologists’ seeming reluctance to engage with the new field of Music Information Retrieval (MIR). He briefly described three case studies, the first of which involved testing the hypothesis that pitch levels are rising in classical music. This study validated the hypothesis by examining recordings from 1900–2000, which primarily included performances by orchestras and string quartets. Cottrell also examined tempo changes in classical music over the twentieth century, identifying general slowing of tempi in recordings of works by Beethoven and Brahms but increasing tempi in those of Mozart and Schubert.

To date some of the Big Data studies like Cottrell's provide empirical data addressing assumptions that are somewhat familiar. But are these questions of pressing concern to current musicologists? Although one might argue the field of Big Music Data is still in its infancy, some scholars have cautioned that such exercises will not attract musicologists to the field.Footnote 29 In contrast, Daniel Leech-Wilkinson, in a study of portamento in recordings of lullabies by Bach, Brahms, Donizetti and Schubert, refuted these types of criticisms. In considering the way memory shapes our experience of music he maintained that musicologists need to be convinced that ‘the obviousness of one's conclusions is an indicator not of triviality but rather of the overwhelming importance of these kinds of factors in our perception of music’.Footnote 30

That Cottrell's article appeared in a mainstream music history journal is somewhat ironic because the scholars of the nineteenth century who are most actively engaged in corpus studies employing computational methodology are theorists. Prior to the advent of the New Musicology, many historians carried out investigations that would now be called corpus studies, but in the recent decade music theorists and scholars of cognition have commandeered the field, applying an arsenal of modern analytical techniques and theories to corpora of widely contrasting sizes and genres, including world, folk and commercial music.Footnote 31 Some of these theorists have begun to explore the possibility of employing computational methodologies to analyse datasets comprised of recordings, MIDI realizations or scores. In part, these efforts are the result of theorists’ longstanding interest in mathematics and computing, rather than the direct influence of digital humanities in other fields.

The essays in Computational Music Analysis demonstrate numerous approaches, algorithms, MIR applications and software to analyse structural elements such as form, chords, motives and melodic borrowings from one work to another. Many of the essays note the early stage of the development of computer-driven analysis, and the challenges posed to this endeavour, including the decision-making processes of music analysts that are not easily replicated by computers.Footnote 32 While a number of the authors present brief corpus studies that consider a variety of classical composers, few venture beyond Beethoven's piano sonatas and Chopin's solo piano music because the length and density of the textures of later pieces pose too many problems.

Many corpus studies have focused on the development of technology, both in terms of automated analysis and visualizations of the quantitative data, rather than on reaching new understandings of the music. However, the most successful projects, such as SALAMI, have created datasets and methodologies that subsequent scholars are using.Footnote 33 Readily available datasets and their contents are crucial to the further development of corpus studies. Mathieu Giraud, Richard Groult and Florence Levé list a number of available datasets in ‘Computational Analysis of Musical Form’, in Computational Music Analysis. The Yale Classical Archive Corpus is another option. It comprises 13,000 MIDI files of works by 571 composers dating from around 1600 to 1900.Footnote 34

Automating structural analyses of nineteenth-century compositions based on scores has proved challenging because the scores need to be encoded in a uniform fashion.Footnote 35 Because of the complexity of the scores, and the resulting labour-intensive nature of the encoding, there are far more projects involving the analysis of early music, such as the Josquin Research Project and projects based at McGill University, than ones exploring Classical or Romantic music.Footnote 36 These difficulties have likely also led scholars to perform traditional analyses or to mark/encode the desired structural/stylistic elements on the scores and then employ digital tools to collate, analyse and visualize that data. This was the case with Katelyn Horn and David Huron's study on the use of major and minor modes in western art music from 1750–1900 and Jessica Narum and Andrew Watkins's study of topics in Mozart's piano sonatas.Footnote 37

In contrast, Leigh VanHandel created a corpus of 412 French and 655 German nineteenth-century art songs in order to study the vocal lines’ rhythmic patterns. She created this corpus using David Huron's Humdrum Toolkit, an open-source software package created in the 1980s.Footnote 38 The data included the melodic, rhythmic, phrasing and text information for each song. Computational analyses revealed that the rhythms of French and German art songs did not reflect the contrasting rhythms of the spoken languages. This surprising conclusion led to further interrogations of the data that focused on rhythmic and metric styles of individual composers.Footnote 39 Although the findings could have ramifications for future studies of art songs, including close readings of individual songs, they are also limited in that VanHandel did not encode or analyse the piano parts, which in some cases could have influenced the rhythms in the vocal lines. More recently a group of scholars led by Mark Gotham expanded VanHandel's corpus by using crowdsourcing to encode the complete scores of lieder.Footnote 40 This project was just completed, and while the scores are being used in pedagogical projects, to date an analytical study of this new corpus has not been published.Footnote 41

In a 2009 essay, Alan Marsden surveyed the use of computers in music analysis. Although he concentrated on articles in the journal Music Analysis, many of his observations concerned the status of the field as a whole. Just over ten years on, considerably more analysts are using technology. Nevertheless the gulf between those performing traditional analysis and those adopting computer-driven applications that Marsdon described is still present.Footnote 42 This gulf can be partly attributed to the contrasting aims of those interested in the large-scale questions that can be answered by corpus studies and those for whom the sound and the physical feel of every note is of the utmost consequence and pleasure. But an equally significant aspect of the gulf is that the disparity in computer competencies between technology experts and most music analysts impacts readers and not just researchers, in that many historians and theorists are unlikely to understand much of the jargon, methodologies and symbols in publications describing research employing computational methodologies.

Corpus Studies – Texts

While digital musicology includes studies that employ technology to analyse various aspects of sound recordings and scores, the digital humanities is more frequently associated with computer-assisted analysis of datasets comprised of texts. A number of recent articles suggest that historians already possess text datasets that could be mined; these include library catalogues, RISM, HathiTrust and reference works such as Oxford Music Online (Grove) and RILM, as well as the various services providing digitized historical newspapers.Footnote 43 At the present time, however, there are a number of barriers to these types of studies, including the quality of the sources and the necessity that digitized data be homogenous. In a pioneering project exploring the types of historical data that could be mined from library catalogues, ‘A Big Data History of Music’ first had to ‘clean’ the catalogue records to insure uniformity.Footnote 44 A novel way to mine current datasets, such as Oxford Music Online, is to propose questions that involve drawing information from multiple articles, for instance examining patterns of migration among composers. Sergio Ormas and Mohamed Sordo have explained the challenges that this type of study poses, and in particular, the necessity for items stored in digital libraries to be semantically encoded.Footnote 45

There are even more problems involved in analysing datasets comprised of digital copies of older sources, such as nineteenth-century newspapers. In addition to services and institutions digitizing papers in Europe, North America and Australia, there are a growing number of digital archives for newspapers in Latin America (as Izquierdo and Vera's essay documents). The challenges to using automated analysis of such datasets include the quality of the original sources and the discrepancy in reporting matters related to music among different newspapers – particularly newspapers from different cities and decades. Moreover, as is well known in the field, the quality of optical character recognition (OCR) impacts retrievability, as do alternative spellings (which is particularly problematic when dealing with titles of compositions such as operas and lieder in English-language papers).Footnote 46 Studying the reception of specific compositions is also problematic because notices often do not report whether multi-movement works (such as lieder cycles and oratorios) were performed in full, and typically newspapers do not provide the title of every piece that was performed at a given concert.Footnote 47

To date, projects employing computational methods to analyse data in digitized newspapers and datasets from library catalogues have mostly located large-scale trends, however, a few have highlighted new points of interest. In their review essay, Izquierdo and Vera summarize their study of Chilean sheet music that reveals the importance of women composers, the waltz and of Valparaíso as a centre of publishing.

Monzingo and Shanahan's ‘The Expression of Self and Grief in the Nineteenth Century’ is a diachronic study with somewhat counter-intuitive results. The authors demonstrate the type of Big Data text mining that has been employed in literary criticism and in the study of popular song lyrics.Footnote 48 In reflecting upon their study of the use of personal pronouns in songs about grief, they follow other scholars (including Horn and Huron) in emphasizing the importance of the content of a given corpus. They conclude that to understand personal pronoun usage in the nineteenth century, it is crucial to know about the trends in usage during the preceding century. Ultimately, their initial hypothesis that personal pronoun usage in songs about grief would increase in the nineteenth century was disproved; but, as in VanHandel's analyses of art songs, this negation points to further research questions. Although it might be logical to suppose that this type of study of lyrics could be paired with analyses of the music of the songs, as documented previously, computational analyses of music are still plagued by technological challenges. While a few studies have combined computational methodologies to mine the lyrics and music of popular songs, the consideration of the music has not involved structural analysis, but rather listener responses to the music's moods.Footnote 49

Visualizations

In addition to using technology to mine datasets, a variety of software has been designed to assist scholars in visualizing their findings. Two types of visualizations that have been employed in numerous projects are software analysing and displaying networks of people, concepts and words, and annotated maps with audio plug-ins.

Some of the most sophisticated of the network visualizations are interactive, in that they enable a ‘reader’ to select and visually highlight a specific part of the network. Such is the case of the interactive networks of the Viral Texts Project, a study of the digitized newspapers stored at Chronicling America.Footnote 50 In ‘Seeing More Clearly’, Sarah Fuchs discusses the manner in which proponents of the digital humanities have hyped software to create visualizations, and the veracity of claims that these new applications reveal new connections between data points and lead to new research questions. Whereas most of the other authors in this special issue delineate the limitations of their studies, as is typical for empirical studies, Fuchs's article represents the type of autoethnography that has recently started to attract the attention of music scholars.Footnote 51

In addition to the types of visualizations that Fuchs discusses, scholars have also been encouraged to present their research in the form of digital maps. Emily Thompson, for example, designed a map recreating the sounds of New York City in 1926–1932. Audio clips on her map enable one to hear noises of everyday life from coffee shops to industries to private homes – and specifically those noises that people complained about.Footnote 52 Scholars often report that seeing their findings on these types of maps led them to new conclusions, but it is not always clear whether they would have reached these conclusions without creating a digital map. Ademide Adelusi-Adeluyi's mapping of an 1885 street procession in Lagos led her to contemplate not only the significance of the buildings that were and were not included in the route, but also other contemporary sources describing life in that city.Footnote 53 Similarly, Mia Tootill's ‘Mapping Paris Theaters’, which provides a brief description of each theatre marked on the map and a list of the works that were performed there, helped her reevaluate the significance of the Opéra in relation to other contemporary theatres.Footnote 54 In contrast, Louis Epstein has persuasively demonstrated that mapping projects are excellent pedagogical projects that enable undergraduates to participate in research employing primary sources.Footnote 55

Some mapping projects, such as City of Light: Paris 1900–1950, and other digital-born projects, such as those created by Thomas Hampson's Hampsong Foundation, are designed to reach beyond scholars and attract a wide audience.Footnote 56 Moreover, numerous funding organizations require this type of outreach or societal impact. No doubt such mandates are well intentioned, but just as Rink in his discussion of digital editions questions the claim that critical editions are intended for both performers and scholars, I question the extent to which these websites can adequately address scholars, students and the general public; and in any case, given the declining market share of classical music, who is this general public? Some of these sites, no doubt because they aspire to reach a wider audience, have little to no bibliography or discussion of sources, making them entirely inappropriate as models to build students’ critical thinking skills. Similarly, like unsigned essays posted to websites of institutions such as the Library of Congress, such digital projects make little attempt to position themselves in relation to the scholarly discourses of the related topics: all information is presented as uncontested facts – and the sources of said facts are usually not clearly stated. Therefore, unless such sites post copies of significant source material that is not available elsewhere, they will ultimately have little impact on scholarly discourse. (Moreover, as others have noted, projects intended for the broader public are not always accepted for tenure/post-tenure review.) Many of the projects intended for the wider community are not listed by the major aggregators, and unlike projects about individual composers, such as the website for Antonín Dvořák created by Ondřej Šupka, they are not always easy to locate with a simple google search.Footnote 57 (Cawelti makes similar observations about locating digital repositories for sheet music.)

***

In 2015, Laurent Pugin wrote, ‘Most of our work in the humanities is increasingly driven by digital technology. Musicology is no exception and the field is undergoing the same revolution as all disciplines in the humanities’.Footnote 58 In some ways the foregoing survey of diverse digital projects supports Pugin's observation. Yet a digital nineteenth-century musicology (for want of a better label) is yet to emerge. Searches of RILM and Proquest Dissertations & Theses retrieved fewer than 20 studies of nineteenth-century music that used ‘digital humanities’ as a keyword, and most of the influential publications and projects cited in this essay were not included. Perhaps this is because scholars identify themselves by their primary area of research, such as a given composer, country, culture or performance studies, rather than as digital humanists. Similarly, they align themselves with specific disciplines such as empirical musicology, music theory, cognition, music history, librarianship, or technology – all of which have their own specialized journals and conferences.Footnote 59 Although practitioners in the first three of these fields interact, there appears to be less interaction across all of these fields. That this lack of interaction is particularly observable in the US might be attributed in part to the greater prominence of empirical musicology in the UK and other countries such as Germany. Whereas empiricists have quickly commandeered technology to create and analyse datasets, historians examining musical culture and manuscript sources (including many in the US, where the influence of the New Musicology continues to reverberate) have demonstrated more interest in studying documents and sources available in digital archives than in research employing computational methodologies.

These differences between the two continents are reflected in or influenced by some of the funding opportunities. Whereas the AHRC in the UK has funded numerous projects developing computational techniques for creating and analysing data, the NEH in the US seems to have favoured projects that preserve and disseminate artefacts and documents representing aspects of culture that have to date attracted little scholarly attention, such as Emerson College's The Banjo Project: Stories of America's Instrument.Footnote 60 Opportunities to form collaborations between a number of institutions, and to do so for more than a single year, might also impact this situation. At present, it seems that such partnerships, which are sometimes necessary for large-scale projects, are either easier to establish or more strongly encouraged in the UK than in the US.Footnote 61

This survey of the application of digital humanities’ concepts and technologies to the study of nineteenth-century music has offered a ‘big tent’ approach; it has highlighted both the utility of digital approaches and their limitations. On the one hand it has revealed the wide variety of scholars working with technology, but on the other it has highlighted groups of scholars with differing epistemologies that seem to have little real interaction. This segregation is particularly ironic because one of the goals of the digital humanities was to bridge disciplinary divides. Only time will tell whether these divides are ameliorated once technology has developed in ways that will enable scholars without high-level computing competencies to analyse music and older documents (such as newspapers) and to generate findings that could not be revealed by traditional research methods. Based on the fast-paced development of digital archives and computational methodologies during the most recent decade, perhaps we are not far from reaching this goal and enabling scholars of nineteenth-century music to more fully realize the revolutionary possibilities offered by broader access to information and technology, and novel approaches to Big-Data analysis.

Footnotes

I am most grateful for the advice and citations of publications that I received from Sarah Fuchs, Cayenna Ponchione-Bailey, John Rink, Daniel Shanahan and Faedra Weiss.

References

1 Numerous articles have debated the definition of digital humanities, and whether it is a field or a discipline; a spectrum of these are reprinted in Defining Digital Humanities: A Reader, ed. Melissa Terras, Julianne Nyhan and Edward Vanhoutte (Farnham: Ashgate, 2013). Ryan Cordell offers a provocative and skeptical overview of the use of the term ‘digital humanities’ in ‘How Not to Teach Digital Humanities’, Debates in Digital Humanities 2016 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2016): https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled/section/31326090-9c70-4c0a-b2b7-74361582977e.

2 In her brief overview of the digital humanities and its relationship to musicology, Michelle Urberg traces the intersection of these disciplines to projects in the 1970s such as the Hymn Tune Index, which was compiled and managed by Nicholas Temperley at the University of Illinois; see Urberg, Michelle, ‘Past and Futures of Digital Humanities in Musicology: Moving Towards a “Bigger Tent”’, Music Reference Services Quarterly 20/3–4 (2017): 134–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar, https://doi.org/10.1080/10588167.2017.1404301. Although the title of her article includes the word musicology, in the article itself Urberg differentiates between the disciplines of music history and music theory. This is not usually the case in similar surveys of the digital humanities and music. Like the tag digital musicology, such publications follow the European practice of combining history and theory under the umbrella term musicology rather than the US practice of clearly separating the disciplines. Similarly, many of the scholars who work under the rubric of empirical musicology undertake the types of research that scholars in the US more readily associate with music theory than with musicology.

3 In their article in the Companion to Digital Humanities, Ichiro Fujinaga and Susan Forscher Weiss offer one of the broadest views of the digital humanities in music, including the electronic versions of such resources as RILM and Music Index, composers’ use of notation software, digital archives and computer applications. See Fujinaga, and Weiss, , ‘Music’, A Companion to Digital Humanities, ed. Schreibman, Susan, Siemens, Ray and Unsworth, John (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004): 97–107CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 Many of the larger repositories have been reviewed in this journal and others. See for instance, my review of VIFA in ‘Virtual Library of Musicology’, Nineteenth-Century Music Review 10/2 (2013): 359–64; Duchesneau, Michel, ‘Gallica: The Online Digital Library of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France’, Nineteenth-Century Music Review 11/2 (2014): 337–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Long, Sarah Ann, ‘International Image Interoperability Framework (IIIF), Gallica, e-codices: Virtual Manuscript Library of Switzerland’, Journal of the American Musicological Society 71/2 (2018): 561–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 RISM's Online Catalog of Musical Sources (www.rism.info/en/home.html) not only allows traditional searches by composer and title, it also has a keyboard that enables one to search by melody. Entries describing sources for a given composition often include helpful links, some of which lead to digitized manuscripts. The site also releases short news items, such as a recent posting concerning digitized performance materials for Wagner's operas: www.rism.info/home/newsdetails/select/electronic_resources/article/2/performance-materials-from-tannhaeuser-and-meistersinger-von-nuernberg-now-online.html.

6 https://libguides.princeton.edu/digitalscores.

7 https://drm.ccarh.org.

8 The Bizet Catalog: http://digital.wustl.edu/bizet/; McGuire, Charles Edward, ‘Of Programs and Prima Donnas: Investigating British Music with the Musical Festivals Database’, Notes 73/3 (2017): 432–7210.1353/not.2017.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and https://musicalfestivals.org.

9 https://guides.library.harvard.edu/onmusic.

10 https://prague-concerts.info.

11 Rossini search at Duke University Libraries Digital Repository: https://repository.duke.edu/dc/quartets?utf8=✓&q=rossini&search_field=all_fields.

12 Transforming Musicology: https://tm.web.ox.ac.uk/research/mini-projects.

13 Unlocking Musicology: https://um.web.ox.ac.uk.

14 Duke University Libraries’ ‘Digital Musicology: Getting Started’: https://guides.library.duke.edu/c.php?g=857511. In general, LibGuides are wonderful sources of information about current technology and software, such as text mining tools, that are being employed by digital humanists.

15 https://documentingcarreno.org/ and www.songsofthevictorians.com/index.html#home.

16 https://mugi.hfmt-hamburg.de. Anna E. Kijas's posting ‘Rebalancing the Music Canon’ briefly introduces her project that seeks to address the lack of representation of women and people of color in digital projects: www.annakijas.com/rebalancing-the-music-canon/#more-994.

17 This project, which encompasses over 3,000 texts related to French music and ballet in the long nineteenth century along with related bibliographic resources, is now known as France: Musiques, Cultures 1789–1918, www.fmc.ac.uk/.

18 Aiyegbusi, Babalola Titilola, ‘Decolonizing Digital Humanities: Africa in Perspective’, Debates in Digital Humanities 2016 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2016)Google Scholar: https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled-4e08b137-aec5-49a4-83c0-38258425f145/section/c9862793-ef00-4d6b-a30c-2f3d354e4e94. This article also touches on other topics that I reference, including the definition of digital humanities.

19 Tom Beghin, et al, Inside the Hearing Machine, www.insidethehearingmachine.com. Sisman, Elaine reviewed the outcomes of this project in Nineteenth-Century Music Review 16/2 (2019): 317–2210.1017/S1479409819000168CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Boren, Braxton B., ‘Computational Acoustic Musicology’, Digital Scholarship in the Humanities 34/4 (2019): 707–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 For a recent overview of the study of recordings, see Carlos E. Cancino-Chacón, Maarten Grachten, Werner Goebel and Gerhard Widmer, ‘Computational Models of Expressive Music Performance: A Comprehensive and Critical Review’, Frontiers in Digital Humanities 5 (24 October 2018): https://doi.org/10.3389/fdigh.2018.00025.

21 Clarke, Eric, ‘Empirical Methods in the Study of Performance’, in Empirical Musicology: Aims, Methods, Prospects, ed. Clarke, Eric and Cook, Nicholas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 77–10210.1093/acprof:oso/9780195167498.003.0005CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Cook, Nicholas, Beyond the Score: Music as Performance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013)Google Scholar, see especially the discussions in chapters 5 and 6 on recordings of Chopin's mazurkas.

22 Information for this centre is available at https://gtr.ukri.org/projects?ref=AH%2FD502527%2F2.

23 https://charm.kcl.ac.uk. CHARM contributed to the studies of expressive music performance and historical recordings that proliferated following the publication of Philip, Robert's Early Recordings and Musical Style: Changing Tastes in Instrumental Performance, 1900–1950 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24 A number of the publications that emerged from ‘Analysing Motif in Performance’ concern mazurkas and etudes by Chopin. In their study of recordings of Chopin's Mazurka op. 24, no. 2, John Rink, Neta Spiro and Nicolas Gold demonstrate that music's gestural properties are not fully encoded in scores. Rather than focusing on traditional pitch or rhythmic motives, they consider ‘expressive patterns in timing, dynamics, articulation or varied repetition’; see Rink, John, Spiro, Neta and Gold, Nicolas, ‘Motive, Gesture and the Analysis of Performance’, New Perspectives on Music and Gesture, ed. Gritten, Anthony and King, Elaine (Farnham: Ashgate, 2011), 267Google Scholar.

25 For information about Sonic Visualiser, see www.sonicvisualiser.org. Massimo Zicari's study of recordings of Adelina Patti employed Sonic Visualiser along with more traditional musicological methodologies and sources: ‘Expressive Tempo Modifications in Adelina Patti's Recordings: An Integrated Approach’, Empirical Musicology Review 12/1–2 (2017): http://emusicology.org/article/view/5010/4791.

26 Daniel Leech-Wilkinson, The Changing Sound of Music: Approaches to Studying Recorded Musical Performances (London: CHARM, 2009; updated version 2010): www.charm.kcl.ac.uk/studies/chapters/intro.html. Nicholas Cook, Eric Clarke, Daniel Leech-Wilkinson and John Rink, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Recorded Music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009). These books are addressed to the musicology and theory communities, but many of the other studies produced by CHARM concern the psychology of music and are published in journals such as Musicae Scientiae.

27 Cook, Nicholas, ‘Computational and Comparative Musicology’, in Empirical Musicology: Aims, Methods, Prospects, ed. Clarke, Eric and Cook, Nicholas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 103Google Scholar. David Huron, ‘The New Empiricism: Systematic Musicology in a Postmodern Age’, Ernest Bloch Lectures, University of California, Berkeley, 1999, www.musiccognition.osu.edu/publications/.

28 Stephen Cottrell, ‘Big Music Data, Musicology, and the Study of Recorded Music: Three Case Studies’, Musical Quarterly 101/2–3 (2018): 216–43. The website of the Digital Music Lab (http://dml.city.ac.uk), an AHRC-funded project, provides access to Emmanouil Benetos's guide to audio analysis and a demonstration of Digital Music Lab VIS, a tool designed for analysing large collections of music.

29 Liem, Cynthia C.S., Rauber, Andreas, Lidy, Thomas, Lewis, Richard, Raphael, Christopher, Reiss, Joshua D., Crawford, Tim and Hanjalic, Alan, ‘Music Information Technology and Professional Stakeholder Audiences: Mind the Adoption Gap’, Dagstuhl Follow-Ups 3 (2012): 235Google Scholar, http://drops.dagstuhl.de/opus/volltexte/2012/3475/.

30 Leech-Wilkinson, Daniel, ‘Portamento and Musical Meaning’, Journal of Musicological Research 25 (2006): 24010.1080/01411890600859412CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

31 Music Perception 31/1 (2013) and 31/2 (2014) and Empirical Musicology Review 11/1 (2016) are each devoted to corpus studies.

32 Computational Music Analysis, ed. David Meredith (Cham: Springer, 2015). Each article concludes with a substantial bibliography of publications such as Marsden, Alan, ‘Schenkerian Analysis by Computer: A Proof of Concept’, Journal of New Music Research 39/3 (2010): 269–8910.1080/09298215.2010.503898CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

33 SALAMI: Structural Analysis of Large Amounts of Music Information (www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub151/case-studies/salami/). This dataset encompasses a wide variety of music, including both popular and classical genres from across contrasting eras. One case study analyzed the large-scale form of approximately 1,400 of these recordings: Jordan B.L. Smith, J. Ashley Burgoyne, Ichiro Fujinaga, David De Roure and J. Stephen Downie, ‘Design and Creation of a Large-Scale Database of Structural Annotations’, in Proceedings of the 12th International Society for Music Information Retrieval Conference, ed. Anssi Klapuri and Colby Leider (Miami: University of Miami, 2011): 555–60, http://ismir2011.ismir.net/papers/PS4-14.pdf. Karen Ullrich, Jan Schlüter and Thomas Grill are among the scholars to have used SALAMI data; see their ‘Boundary Detection in Music Structure Analysis Using Convolutional Neural Networks’, in Proceedings of the 15th Conference of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval (ISMIR 2014 Taipei), ed. Hsin-Min Wang, Yi-Hsuan Yang and Jin Ha Lee (n.p.: International Society for Music Information Retrieval, 2015): 417–22, www.terasoft.com.tw/conf/ismir2014/proceedings/ISMIR2014_Proceedings.pdf.

34 White, Christopher Wm. and Quinn, Ian, ‘The Yale-Classical Archives Corpus’, Empirical Musicology Review 11/1 (2016): 50–5810.18061/emr.v11i1.4958CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See Trevor de Clercq's critique of this study on pp. 59–67 of the same issue.

35 Although there are numerous freely available digitized scores, including those at imslp.org, most are not in a format that can be used for computer-driven analyses. Optical Music Recognition (OMR) and the Music Encoding Initiative (MEI) facilitate this type of analysis. See Fujinaga, Ichiro, Hankinson, Andrew and Pugin, Laurent, ‘Automatic Score Extraction with Optical Music Recognition’, in Springer Handbook of Systematic Musicology, ed. Bader, Rolf (Cham: Springer, 2018): 299–31010.1007/978-3-662-55004-5_16CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Crawford, Tim and Lewis, Richard, ‘Music Encoding Initiative: Johannes Kepper, Administrative Chair, URL: http://music-encoding.org/’, Journal of the American Musicological Society 69/1 (2016): 273–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

36 SIMSSA, Single Interface for Music Score Searching and Analysis (https://simssa.ca) is a multi-institutional project led by scholars at McGill University that explores both the issues of transforming musical scores to machine-readable content and computer-driven analysis. One of the related projects (CANTUS) focuses on chant manuscripts, while another (ELVIS) deals with counterpoint. Other projects applying digital concepts to pre-nineteenth-century music were published in two special issues of Early Music (42/4 (2014) and 43/4 (2015)). These 27 articles embrace a wide variety of topics including sources studies, analysis, historically informed performance and organology, and they discuss an array of methodologies including text mining and information retrieval.

37 Katelyn Horn and David Huron, ‘On the Changing use of the Major and Minor Modes 1750–1900’, Music Theory Online 21/1 (2015): www.mtosmt.org/issues/mto.15.21.1/mto.15.21.1.horn_huron.php. Jessica Narum and Andrew Watkins, ‘Musical Topics in Mozart's Piano Sonatas: A Data Science Approach’, Poster at the 2019 Society for Music Theory Conference, Columbus, OH.

38 ‘Humdrum Tools’, www.humdrum.org. Huron, David, ‘Music Information Processing Using the Humdrum Toolkit: Concepts, Examples, and Lessons’, Computer Music Journal 26/2 (2002): 11–2610.1162/014892602760137158CrossRefGoogle Scholar. A number of projects have used Humdrum, including Kern scores, ‘a library of virtual music scores’ that includes nineteenth-century repertoire: http://kern.ccarh.org.

39 VanHandel, Leigh and Song, Tian, ‘The Role of Meter in Compositional Style in 19th Century French and German Art Song’, Journal of New Music Research, 39/1 (2010): 1–1110.1080/09298211003642498CrossRefGoogle Scholar and VanHandel, Leigh, ‘National Metrical Types in Nineteenth Century Art Song’, Empirical Musicology Review 4/4 (2009): 134–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See William Thomson's critique of the latter on pp. 158–59 of the same issue.

40 Lieder Corpus Project: https://fourscoreandmore.org/scores-of-scores/lieder-corpus-project/. Mark Gotham, Peter Jones, Bruno Bower, Williams Bosworth, Daniel Rootham and Leigh VanHandel, ‘Scores of Scores: An Open Source Project to Encode and Share Sheet Music’, in Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Digital Libraries for Musicology (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 2018): 87–95, https://doi.org/10.1145/3273024.3273026.

41 Other scholars have employed crowdsourcing for a variety of projects. Emily Erken's reception history of musical settings of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin is particularly noteworthy because it examines responses to live performances of classical repertoire. These ‘spectator reviews’ were posted to online discussion groups, blogs and ticket-selling websites in Russia. ‘Constructing the Russian Moral Project through the Classics: Reflections of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin, 1833–2014’ (PhD diss., The Ohio State University, 2015). Most of the other crowdsourcing projects concern popular music, as is the case with Çano, Erion and Morisio, Maurizio, ‘Crowdsourcing Emotions in Music Domain’, International Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Applications 8/4 (July 2017): 25–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

42 Marsden, Alan, ‘“What was the Question?”: Music Analysis and the Computer’, in Modern Methods of Musicology: Prospects, Proposals, and Realities, ed. Crawford, Tim and Gibson, Lorna (Farnham: Ashgate, 2009), 137–47Google Scholar. This volume was part of Ashgate's Digital Research in the Arts and Humanities series.

43 For an overview of the promise and challenges of the HathiTrust Digital Library as a dataset to be studied (rather than as a provider of publications) see J. Stephen Downie, Kirstin Dougan, Sayan Bhattacharyya and Colleen Fallaw, ‘The HathiTrust Corpus: A Digital Library for Musicological Research?’, in Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Digital Libraries for Musicology, ed. Ben Fields and Kevin R. Page (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 2014), 8p. One of Unlocking Musicology's proof of concept demonstrations explores network analyses of RILM's data; see David Lewis, Yun Fan, Glenn Henshaw and Kevin Page, ‘Musicology of Digital Libraries: Structure in RILM’, in Proceedings of 4th International Workshop on Digital Libraries for Musicology, Shanghai, China, October 28, 2017, ed. Kevin R. Page (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 2017): 59–62.

44 This study, a collaboration of Royal Holloway and the British Library, examined 16,000 bibliographic entries in order to understand trends in music publishing from 1550–1700; see Rose, Stephen, Tuppen, Sandra, Drosopoulou, Loukia, ‘Writing a Big Data History of Music’, Early Music 43/4 (2015): 649–6010.1093/em/cav071CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

45 Ormas, Sergio and Sordo, Mohamed, ‘Knowledge is Out There: A New Step in the Evolution of Digital Libraries’, Fontes Artis Musicae 63/4 (2016): 285–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

46 Cynthia C.S. Liem provides a brief overview of some of the technical challenges associated with computer-assisted research of digitized newspapers by discussing a project based on examples from the historical newspaper collection of The National Library of The Netherlands (Koninklijke Bibliotheek, KB). ‘Music in Newspapers: Interdisciplinary Opportunities and Data-Related Challenges’, in Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Digital Libraries for Musicology (Paris 2018), ed. Kevin R. Page (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 2018): 47–51.

47 I discuss some of these types of issues in ‘“For Any Ordinary Performer It Would Be Absurd, Ridiculous or Offensive”: Performing Lieder Cycles on the American Stage’, in German Song Onstage: Lieder Performance in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries, ed. Natasha Loges and Laura Tunbridge (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, forthcoming): 111–31.

48 See, for example, Burrows, J.F., Computation to Criticism: A Study in Jane Austen's Novels and an Experiment in Method (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987)Google Scholar.

49 Xiao Hu, J. Stephen Downie and Andreas F. Ehmann, ‘Lyric Text Mining in Music Mood Classification’, 10th International Society for Music Information Retrieval Conference (ISMIR 2009), Kobe, Japan, https://ismir2009.ismir.net/program.html.

50 Ryan Cordell and David Smith, Viral Texts: Mapping Networks of Reprinting in 19th-Century Newspapers and Magazines (2017), http://viraltexts.org. This study focuses on newspaper notices that were reprinted in papers published in a number of different US states. Although it does not discuss music, it is relevant to the study of nineteenth-century musical life because viral texts played an important role in disseminating information about performances and musicians in major East Coast cities to readers in more remote locations, such as Lincoln, Nebraska.

51 For an example of another autoethnographic study related to music, see: Bartleet, Brydie-Leigh, ‘Behind the Baton: Exploring Autoethnographic Writing in a Musical Context’, Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 38/6 (2009): 713–3310.1177/0891241609341638CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

52 The Roaring Twenties: An Interactive Exploration of the Historical Soundscape of New York City, by Emily Thompson and designed by Scott Mahoy: http://vectorsdev.usc.edu/NYCsound/777b.html. Thompson, Emily, ‘Making Noise in The Roaring ’Twenties: Sound and Aural History on the Web’, The Public Historian 37/4 (2015): 91–110CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a broader study of the use of mapping see Presner, Todd, Shepard, David and Kawano, Yoh, HyperCities: Thick Mapping in the Digital Humanities (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014)Google Scholar.

53 Adelusi-Adeluyi, Ademide, of, ‘Historical Tours “New” Lagos: Performance, Place Making, and Cartography in the 1880s’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 38/3 (2018): 443–5410.1215/1089201x-7208790CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For her Cartographic Database, see https://stsinfrastructures.org/content/cartographic-database-new-maps-old-lagos.

54 Mia Tootill briefly traces the historical tradition that informs network visualizations and digital mapping projects in her dissertation: ‘Leaping Off the Page: Diabolical Technologies on the Parisian Musical Stage 1827–1859’ (PhD diss., Cornell University, 2017), 195–223.

55 Louis Epstein's mapping website includes a ‘gallery’ of mapping projects, some of which pertain to musical life in the nineteenth century: https://musicalgeography.org/the-maps/.

56 City of Light: www.philharmonia.co.uk/paris. The projects available at the Hampsong Foundation website include Song of America (multi-media resources designed for school teachers) and Song–Mirror of the World, a series of 13 programmes (originally radio broadcasts) exploring art songs of the long nineteenth century: https://hampsongfoundation.org/projects/.

57 www.antonin-dvorak.cz/en/introduction.

58 Pugin, Laurent, ‘The Challenge of Data in Digital Musicology’, Frontiers in Digital Humanities 2/4 (2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar: www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fdigh.2015.00004/full.

59 Frontiers in Digital Humanities was publishing a journal titled Digital Musicology, but its webpage now states: ‘This journal and section is closed for submission’, and the Special Chief Editor for the journal is not responding to queries. See www.frontiersin.org/journals/digital-humanities/sections/digital-musicology.

60 The Banjo Project is located at http://banjo.emerson.edu. Eileen Gardiner and Ronald G. Musto briefly discuss funding and tenure issues in the United States. See chapter 6 of The Digital Humanities: A Primer for Students and Scholars (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015).

61 That there is a greater attempt to create a community of digital music scholars in the UK than in the US is demonstrated by the Digital Music Research Network, which maintains the Digital Musicology announcements and discussion list – http://c4dm.eecs.qmul.ac.uk/dmrn/. This site also includes a list of the numerous UK research groups engaged in the digital humanities.