2. Prologue to Acts: Epitome of Acts (B 116–17)

The Prologue is often the first feature encountered in manuscripts with Euthaliana. It aims to introduce the author and secure the reader’s goodwill through humility (prologus praeter rem) while also providing an introduction to the content (prologus ante rem).Footnote ¹⁴ Prologues accompany Acts (57 manuscripts), the Catholic Epistles (69 manuscripts) and the Pauline Epistles (199 manuscripts). Unlike the prologues to Paul’s Letters and the Catholic Epistles, the Prologue to Acts focuses less on the content of the book, instead reflecting on the prologist’s sense of inadequacy and the need for meditation and obedience to scripture.Footnote ¹⁵ It also includes an editorial note on dividing Acts into sense-lines for a clear reading of the biblical text. Vermund Blomkvist refers to the Prologue’s closing section as the Epitome of Acts, noting its overlap with the formal hypothesis (also an introduction to Acts) found in many manuscripts.Footnote ¹⁶ This section summarises Luke’s work (Table 1, column 1), mentions his Antiochian origins and medical expertise (likely from Eusebius HE 3.4.6) and highlights three key events from chapters 1–9: the Ascension, Pentecost and Paul’s conversion. It concludes with a stichometric note on the total number of lines in the book.

Table 1.

Version of the Epitome of Acts in the Andreas Catena

Table 1 Long description

This image shows a scanned page with printed Greek text arranged in two columns. The left column is titled Euthalian Apparatus and the right column is titled Catena Andreae (CPG-C150) with sublabels. The text discusses Lukes authorship and the scope of Acts, mentioning his connection to Paul and the themes of resurrection and apostolic actions. Key phrases are bolded, such as Chirhoiotasigmataunu and pialpharhoalphakappalambdasigmaepsilonomegasigma. Editorial notes and citations appear at the bottom, including references to Blomkvist and Cramer. Selected excerpts include: nutauiotachiepsilonsigma gammarho tausigma pirhochiomeganu tau gammanusigma, alphataurhosigma tauepsilon taunu piiotasigmatau microetanu, pirhosigma Pialphalambdaupsilon microalphathetaetatauepsilonupsilonthetaepsilonsigma, delta betaiotabetalambdaupsilonsigma sigmaupsilonnuepsilongammarhopsialphatau, microalphanu micronu kappaalpha pirhotaurhoalphanu taunu tau epsilonalphagammagammaepsilonlambdaupsilon, deltaepsilonupsilontaurhoalphanu delta taualphatauetanu taunu piepsilonrho taunu pisigmataulambdaiotakappanu pirhoxiepsilonomeganu. The text is formal and scholarly, with typographic emphasis conveying importance.

The Epitome, besides being part of the Euthalian Prologue to the Pauline Letters, also appears as a standalone extract in several Acts catena manuscripts, slightly abbreviated from its Euthalian text (Table 1, column 2).Footnote ¹⁷ The transitional clause (καὶ κατ᾽ ἀκολουθίαν…συνέταξε, προοιμιασάμενος) is omitted, and the text starts directly with Ἀντιοχεὺς ὑπάρχων τὸ γένος ὁ Λουκᾶς…and without the stichometric notation. This version appears more frequently in the Andreas catena (C150), both in representatives of the catena integra (C150.1) and in sub-types of the abbreviated tradition (C150.2).Footnote ¹⁸ In the full catena, it is found in the sub-group C150.1a, including GA 307, 453, 610, 1678 and 2818.Footnote ¹⁹ In the abbreviated sub-types, the text matches the full-catena version in GA 94 (C150.2a), 103, 455, 606, 607, 641 and 2576 (C150.2b), as well as 608 and 2996 (C150.2e), though the latter sub-type features a slight variation in the incipit ὁ μακάριος Λουκᾶς.Footnote ²⁰

Layout analysis shows that the Epitome is consistently placed as the first scholium in the catena. In frame-layout catenae of the Andreas full type/C150.1, the passage is consistently marked with the number α’ (1) and cross-referenced to Acts 1.1, typically above the lemma τὸν πρῶτον λόγον (Image 1). It also directly follows the catena’s title Ἑρμηνεία τῶν Πράξεων τοῦ Χρυσοστόμου καὶ ἑτέρων διαφόρων (‘Exegesis of Acts by Chrysostom and various others’), demonstrating its full integration into the chain.

Image 1.

GA 307, folio 5r: Epitome of Acts under the title of the Andreas catena integra (C150.1), indicated as scholium αʹ.

Image 1 Long description

The page is a scanned Greek manuscript introducing the Acts of the Apostles. It features a large printed heading PiRhoAlphaXiEpsilonIotaSigma AlphaPiSigmaTauLambdaOmegaNu across the middle. Above and below the heading are lines of smaller handwritten Greek text. The text is arranged in a single column format, with a visible page number 5 in the top right corner. The manuscript includes various scholia and annotations, with the first line beginning rho microetanuepsilonalpha taunu Pirhoxiepsilonomeganu. The handwriting is dense and cursive, typical of historical manuscripts.

The digitised monochrome images are available online (https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/; https://gallica.bnf.fr).

The Epitome appears as the first scholium, despite not directly commenting on Acts 1.1, likely due to its connection to Luke’s mention of his Gospel as the ‘first book’ (τὸν πρῶτον λόγον).Footnote ²¹ The compiler of the Andreas catena may have included the Epitome to clarify this reference, as it provides a succinct background on Luke’s writings, stating that the author of Acts ‘wrote two books: one earlier, the Gospel, and the second, this one, concerning the Acts of the Apostles’ (δύο βίβλους συνεγράψατο…). A notable exception occurs in GA 1424 (C150.2c), where the Epitome is placed before the catena (folio 164v). Its location on an originally blank page suggests the scribe viewed it not as a direct scholium on Acts 1.1, but as a general ‘abstract’ for the entire book, akin to the back flap of a modern book cover. The various treatment of the Epitome – sometimes as an opening scholium, sometimes as a prefatory piece – demonstrates the flexibility of biographical elements from the Euthalian Apparatus. For compilers and scribes, there seemed to be no strict distinction between exegetical and editorial sources; what mattered was that the source could engage meaningfully with the scripture.

A text resembling the Euthalian Epitome but from a distinct tradition appears in the Pseudo-Oecumenius catena (C151), which has ties to the Andreas catena while drawing from a variety of other sources.Footnote ²² Manuscripts of sub-type C151.3 (e.g. GA 327, 424, 454, 463, 621, 911, 1842, 2242) open with a hypothesis on Acts that abridges Pseudo-Oecumenius prologue (C151.1) (Οὗτος ὁ μακάριος Λουκᾶς μαθητὴς ἦν Παύλου· διὸ καὶ ἐκείνου τὰς πράξεις … αἱ Πράξεις δὲ, τὰς τοῦ παναγίου Πνεύματος).Footnote ²³ This variant emphasises the role of the apostles, particularly Paul, in justifying the title Acts of the Apostles, with minimal focus on Pentecost and no direct commentary on Acts 1.1. Treated as the first scholium in the catena, it parallels the Euthalian Epitome in its arrangement on the manuscript pages. In frame-layout catenae like GA 454 and 911, it is cross-referenced to Acts 1.1 with αʹ (1) and attributed to Chrysostom (Χρ.), while in alternating catenae (e.g. GA 463, 621, 1842), it follows the Acts 1.1 lemma. Some manuscripts link it to the book’s title: GA 2242 places it after Πράξεις τῶν ἁγίων ἀποστόλων with the marginal note ἑρμηνεία (‘exegesis’), and in GA 424 it appears before the biblical text, surrounding a portrait of Luke. Its absence in GA 250, a twin of 424, suggests it was viewed as external to the catena and omitted during copying.Footnote ²⁴ In GA 605 (C155.1), a multi-layered frame catena, the scholium is marked with a symbol above the title, unlike the Greek letters used for other scholia (Image 2). It begins with αὕτη ἡ συγγραφὴ τοῦ μακαρίου καὶ εὐαγγελιστοῦ…, substituting the masculine οὗτος ὁ μακάριος to agree grammatically with the feminine Πράξεις in the title.

Image 2.

GA 605, folio 3r: scholium-hypothesis in a sub-type of Pseudo-Oecumenius catena (C151.3), linked through symbol to the title of Acts.

Image 2 Long description

A scanned page from a Greek manuscript featuring lines of text across the page. On the left, there is a large illuminated ornament resembling a crown with floral and leaf patterns in gold and blue. The text includes larger rubric-style headings in red, possibly indicating emphasis or section titles. The visible Greek text includes phrases such as PiRhoAlphaXiEpsilonIotaSigma TauOmegaNu AlphaPiSigmaTauLambdaOmegaNu and DeltaIotaDeltaAlphaSigmaKappaAlphaLambdaIotaAlpha PiRhoSigma EpsilonPhiEpsilonSigmaIotaUpsilonSigma, suggesting a formal or religious tone. The page has an aged appearance, with some lines faded, indicating its historical nature.

The colour images of GA 605 are available online (https://gallica.bnf.fr).

Although not part of the Euthalian tradition, this hypothesis resembles the Epitome in its function as the first scholium in Acts catenae. Its placement and exegetical treatment highlight its integration into commentary traditions rather than serving merely as prefatory material. This demonstrates the flexibility of New Testament paratextuality, with cross-pollination not only between the Euthalian Apparatus and catenae but also with other traditions, such as hypotheses of different origins – evidence of the openness and adaptability of these ‘systems’.

3. Prologue to Paul’s Letters (B 99–111) and Martyrdom of Paul (B 11)

Two other texts from the Euthalian Apparatus that easily adapt as scholia within the catena tradition of Acts are the Prologue to the Pauline Epistles and the Martyrdom of Paul. These two features are closely connected and deserve joint analysis. The Prologue to the Pauline Letters, traditionally placed at the start of the Pauline corpus, is an extensive text believed to predate the prologues to Acts and the Catholic Epistles.Footnote ²⁵ It opens with a professio modestiae, where the author prays for guidance in recounting Paul’s deeds, followed by four sections: a biographical summary of Paul’s life, ministry and martyrdom; brief summaries of his fourteen letters; references to chapter lists, quotation indices and lectionary divisions in the Euthalian Apparatus; and a timeline of Paul’s life and missions, influenced by Eusebius of Caesarea (HE 2.22, 25).

In the Andreas catena integra (C150.1), the Prologue to Paul’s Letters is divided into two scholia and reworked as exegetical commentary (Table 2). The first extract, derived from the section on Paul’s life, begins with the phrase Πρῶτος μετὰ τῶν στασιαζόντων ἑωρᾶτο and appears as the third scholium on Acts 9.1–2 in all C150.1 manuscripts.Footnote ²⁶ It is introduced with the heading ἐκ τοῦ προτασσομένου προλόγου τῆς βίβλου τοῦ Ἀποστόλου Παύλου (‘from the prologue placed at the beginning of the book of the Apostle Paul’) that explicitly identifies its source in prefatory material. In frame-catena manuscripts, this scholium is typically unnumbered; the sole exception is GA 307 (folio 71r), where the extract is designated with the number ιγʹ (13) (Image 3). Absent from other catena traditions, this scholium also appears abridged in GA 254 (pp. 156–7), a manuscript of the Pseudo-Theophylact catena (C152.2), which draws from C150.1.Footnote ²⁷ The inclusion of this extract from the Prologue is motivated by its close alignment with the biblical narrative of Acts 9.1–2, which describes Paul’s transformative encounter with the divine light.

Table 2.

Scholia from the Prologue to Paul’s Letters in the Andreas Catena (C150)

Table 2 Long description

A two-column layout with Greek text excerpts. The left column is titled Euthalian Apparatus and the right column Catena Andreae (CPG-C150). The text includes sections such as Saul the Persecutor, Pauls Conversion, From the Passion of Christ to Pauls Imprisonment in Rome, On the Use of Sources, From Pauls First Defense to his Martyrdom, Chronological Summary and Appeal to the Reader. The excerpts discuss themes related to Paul, including his persecution, conversion, imprisonment and martyrdom. Citations to Blomkvist and Cramer are present at the bottom. The text is in Greek polytonic script, with section titles bracketed. The tone is scholarly and academic.

Image 3.

GA 307, folio 71r: first scholium from Prologue to Paul’s Letters in the catena integra (C150.1), indicated as number ιγʹ (313).

The digitised monochrome images are available online (https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/; https://gallica.bnf.fr).

The second extract, preserved in the Andreas (C150.1) witnesses and titled ἐκ τοῦ προλόγου τοῦ ἐν τῇ βίβλῳ τῶν ἐπιστολῶν τοῦ αὐτοῦ ἀποστόλου Παύλου προτασσομένου (‘from the prologue placed at the beginning of the book of the epistles of the Apostle Paul’), is a scholium on Acts 28.31.Footnote ²⁸ The passage addresses the open-ended conclusion of Acts, where Paul is under house arrest in Rome, recounting his trial before Caesar and eventual martyrdom, drawing extensively on Eusebius (HE 2.22 and 25). This block corresponds to the following sections in Blomkvist’s division of the Prologue: On the Use of Sources (709B), From Paul’s First Defense to His Martyrdom (709B–712A), Chronological Summary (712AB) and Appeal to the Reader (712C–713A).Footnote ²⁹ The scholium of C150.1 reproduces these divisions nearly verbatim (Table 2).

In other catena traditions, this second scholium appears reworked and without a heading. For instance, in all sub-types of Pseudo-Oecumenius (C151.1, 2, and 3), the extract is abbreviated (Table 3).Footnote ³⁰ It retains Paul’s defence and martyrdom but omits the Appeal to the Reader (712C–713). Instead, it includes a heavily condensed and reworked version of the passage From the Passion of Christ to Paul’s Imprisonment in Rome (708B–709B), which precedes the other sections in the Euthalian Prologue. This suggests that while the Pseudo-Oecumenius (C151) tradition drew on Andreas (C150.1) for certain patristic materials, it may also have had independent access to the Euthalian Prologue – possibly from a full edition of Paul’s Letters where the Prologue appeared as prefatory material.Footnote ³¹

From a layout perspective, in the frame-catena manuscripts of both C150.1 and C151.3 (the only Pseudo-Oecumenius sub-type that includes frame catenae), the scholium is always unnumbered (Images 4 and 5). This absence of numbering may have been a deliberate scribal decision to emphasise its origin from a non-interpretative source, setting it apart from the exegetical scholia within the catena.

Table 3.

Scholium from the Prologue to Paul’s Letters in the Pseudo-Oecumenius Catena (C151)

Abridged versions of this scholium appear in both sub-types of Pseudo-Theophylact (C152), likely adapted from Andreas (C150), as they lack material from the Euthalian Prologue that is not present in the latter. These revisions are found in GA 1871 (folio 5r), a frame catena of C152.1, and GA 254 (pp. 156–7), an alternating catena of C152.2. The C152.1 version is a condensed adaptation of C150.1, following the sequence of On the Use of Sources (709B), From Paul’s First Defense to His Martyrdom (709B–712A) and Chronological Summary (712AB), while omitting the Appeal to the Reader (712C–713A). In contrast, the C152.2 variant is more innovative, rearranging and abbreviating C150.1 to create a distinct structure, and blended with the preceding extract (Table 4).Footnote ³² It begins with On the Use of Sources (709B), jumps to the conclusion of the Chronological Summary (712AB), and then transitions to the Appeal to the Reader (712C–713A). At this point, it reverts to the section From Paul’s First Defense to His Martyrdom (709B–712A), combining its opening with the concluding sentence of On the Use of Sources (709B). The reference to Eusebius is replaced with a pronoun for brevity, while the title of his work, History of the Church, remains cited for clarity. A final prayer, absent from the Euthalian Prologue, C150, and C151 catenae, is added, following the common scribal practice of concluding religious texts with an invocation: ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ τῷ κυρίῳ ἡμῶν…εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας τῶν αἰώνων, ἀμήν (‘In Christ Jesus our Lord, to whom be glory and power, with the Father and the Holy Spirit, now and forever, to the ages of ages. Amen’).

Image 4.

GA 307, folio 190r: second scholium from Prologue to Paul’s Letters in the Andreas catena integra (C150.1).

The digitised monochrome images are available online (https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/; https://gallica.bnf.fr).

Image 5.

GA 250, folio 111r: second scholium from Prologue to Paul’s Letters in a sub-type of Pseudo-Oecumenius catena (C151.3).

Image 5 Long description

A page from a Greek manuscript, featuring uncial-style handwriting. The text is arranged in lines across the page, with annotations in the right margin. The page number 111 is visible in the top right corner. The text includes phrases such as alphapilambdagammaetasigma microepsilonnunu taunu Pialphalambdanu and pi taunu tau kappaetarhogamma microalphatausigma deltaiotaalphakappanualphanu. The handwriting is consistent, with some lines appearing darker, possibly due to ink density. The layout is structured, with the main text in the center and additional notes on the side, indicating a formal scholarly or religious tone. No speculative interpretations are made about the contents significance or headings.

The digitised monochrome images are available online (https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/; https://gallica.bnf.fr).

Table 4.

Scholium from the Prologue to Paul’s Letters in the Pseudo-Theophylact Catena (C152)

Table 4 Long description

Scanned page from a formal academic critical edition. Two columns are present. The left column is headed Euthalian Apparatus and the right column is headed Commentarii Ps. minus Theophylacti (CPG minus C152). Both columns contain printed Greek text with bold and bracketed section labels and citation lines in roman type below each excerpt. The left column contains four bracketed section headings, each followed by a Greek excerpt and a citation from Blomkvist, Euthalian Traditions. Section one is headed On the Use of Sources: 709B. The Greek excerpt begins with the phrase tauta gar kai mechri touton istorei Loukas en tais praxesi ton apostolon. The citation reads Blomkvist, Euthalian Traditions, p. 109. Section two is headed Chronological Summary: 712AB. The Greek excerpt opens with the phrase esti toinun apo tou enneakaidekaton etous Tiberiou kaisaros. The citation reads Blomkvist, Euthalian Traditions, pp. 110 minus 11. Section three is headed Appeal to the Reader: 712C minus 713. The excerpt begins alla metis epi toutois emoi katamemphestho. The citation reads Blomkvist, Euthalian Traditions, p. 111. Section four is headed From Pauls First Defense to his Martyrdom: 709B minus 712A. The excerpt begins kai phesi ton Paulon aneton diatripsai, kai ton tou theou logon akolutos. The citation reads Blomkvist, Euthalian Traditions, pp. 109 minus 10. The right column contains a single continuous block of Greek text drawn from the same source passages, presenting parallel excerpts covering the same four thematic areas: Lukes account in Acts, the chronology of Pauls ministry totalling thirty five years, an appeal to the reader and a reference to Pauls martyrdom under Nero in the thirteenth year, by beheading. The right column ends with a doxological closing phrase in Greek beginning en Christo Iesou to kyrio hemon. The citation at the foot of the right column reads GA 254, pp. 156 minus 7. Throughout both columns, certain Greek phrases are underlined, indicating textual parallels or editorial emphasis. Bold text marks the word kataliponton in the left column and katalipo n in the right column, highlighting a key verbal variant between the two sources.

The Martyrdom of Paul, preserved in 132 manuscripts of the Praxapostolos, provides a detailed account of Paul’s execution under Nero, employing chronological markers such as dates and references to Roman rulers.Footnote ³³ This text closely mirrors the Euthalian Prologue, suggesting some kind of literary relationship.Footnote ³⁴ The text is typically titled Μαρτύριον Παύλου τοῦ Ἀποστόλου in the manuscripts.Footnote ³⁵ In the Euthalian tradition, it often introduces the Pauline Letters but is sometimes appended to Acts, typically appearing with other prefatory materials (e.g. in GA 42, 90, 102, 1102) and only occasionally at the end of the scriptural text (e.g. GA 384, 621).

In catena manuscripts, the Martyrdom features at the end of the Andreas catena (C150.1) under the synonymic title Μαρτυρολόγιον Παύλου τοῦ Ἀποστόλου (‘Narration on the Martydom of the Apostle Paul’) and in a slightly abbreviated form (Table 5).Footnote ³⁶ From a layout perspective, this text, similar to the scholia from the Prologue to the Pauline Letters, is usually unnumbered, although in GA 307 (folio 190v) it is numbered πηʹ (888) (Image 6). Furthermore, in all codices it precedes the subscription of the catena. For example, in GA 307, it is placed before τέλος τῶν σχολίων τῶν Πράξεων (‘End of the scholia to Acts’), indicating its role as an integral part of the catena. Placing the Martyrdom as the final scholium aligns it with the preceding extract from the Euthalian Prologue, which also covers events after Paul’s imprisonment, thus further complementing the narrative of his life and death for the readers of the Acts catena.

Table 5.

Martyrdom of Paul in the Andreas Catena (C150)

Table 5 Long description

Two columns of printed Greek text with headings. Left column (Euthalian Apparatus): The text discusses the martyrdom of Paul the Apostle under Nero, mentioning his execution by beheading in Rome during the thirty-sixth year of the salvific passion. It provides a detailed account of the timing, stating it occurred on the fifth day of the month Panemos, which corresponds to three days before the Kalends of July according to Roman reckoning. The text notes the sixty-ninth year of the presence of our Savior Jesus Christ. It mentions the total time from the martyrdom to the current consulate, the fourth of Arcadius and third of Honorius, the two brother emperors Augustus, ninth indiction of the fifteenth period, month of June, twenty-ninth day. Right column (Catena Andreae): Similar content is presented, detailing the martyrdom of Paul under Nero, with the execution by beheading in the thirty-sixth year of the salvific passion. It mentions the fifth day of the month Panemos, corresponding to three days before the Kalends of July. The text notes the sixty-ninth year of the presence of our Savior. It provides the total time from the martyrdom to the current consulate, fourth of Arcadius, third of Honorius, ninth indiction of the fifteenth period, month of June, twenty-ninth day. Bibliographic references are included at the bottom of each column: Blomkvist, Euthalian Traditions, p. 11 and Cramer, Catenae Graecorum Patrum, p. 424.4 to 14.

Image 6.

GA 307, folio 190v: Martyrdom of Paul numbered as πηʹ (888) and before the subscription of the end of the Andreas catena integra (C150.1).

Image 6 Long description

The page contains a single block of handwritten Greek text in dense cursive-like minuscule, discussing the martyrdom of Paul. The text begins with a heading, Mualpharhotauupsilonrholambdagammaiotanu Pialphalambdaupsilon tau pisigmataulambdaupsilon, indicating the subject matter. The manuscript is organized with lines closely spaced across the page and the final line centered at the bottom reads, TauEpsilonLambdaSigma TauOmegaNu SigmaChiLambdaIotaOmegaNu TauOmegaNu PiRhoAlphaXiEpsilonOmegaNu. The text appears to describe events related to Pauls martyrdom, mentioning xiphiepsiloniota taunu kappaepsilonphialphalambdanu pitau microetathetaepsilonsigma (beheaded by sword) and nu tau taurhoiotaalphakappasigmatau kappaalpha kappatau tauepsiloniota (in the thirty-sixth year). The ink is dark and the handwriting is consistent throughout, providing a clear transcription of the narrative.

The digitised monochrome images are available online (https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/; https://gallica.bnf.fr).

The Martyrdom’s exclusive presence in the Andreas catena (C150.1) type does not necessarily imply it was unknown to other catena traditions; in fact, several manuscripts from different types occasionally include the Martyrdom as part of their prefatory materials. At times, it is linked to the Pauline Letters (e.g. GA 82, 103, 1424 for C150.2; 91, 1933 for C151.1; 2242 for C151.3; 605 for C155.1; 1162 and 1845 for C156), and on other occasions, it is associated with Acts (e.g. GA 94 for C150.2; 463, 621, and 1842 for C151.3). The omission of the Martyrdom in some catenae likely reflects scribes’ reluctance to duplicate content, as the Prologue to the Pauline Letters already covers Paul’s aftermath. Including the Martyrdom may have seemed redundant. In contrast, compilers of the Andreas catena (C150.1) included it to provide further details on Paul’s fate, creating a coherent ‘afterword’ to address Acts’ open ending. This changing treatment demonstrates the flexibility of short biographical narrations as paratexts, shaped by the needs of their users, whether scribes or compilers.

4. Inscription on the Athens Altar (Z 514)

The Athenian altar inscription mentioned in Acts 17.23 is fully preserved in 46 New Testament manuscripts. In his Areopagus speech, Paul claims to have found an altar inscribed Ἀγνώστῳ θεῷ (‘To an Unknown God’) among Athens’ numerous altars. While Paul’s visit to Athens is historically accepted, the authenticity of the speech in Acts is debated, as ancient historians often crafted speeches for their narratives.Footnote ³⁷ The existence of an altar dedicated to a singular ‘unknown god’ is also contested, with no archaeological or literary evidence to confirm it. Some suggest the reference may have been to altars for ‘unknown gods’ in the plural.Footnote ³⁸ The inscription appears mainly in manuscripts containing the Euthalian Apparatus and catenae, a neglected source in scholarship debates that could shed light on its origins.

In five manuscripts, the inscription is placed alongside other prefatory materials of the Apparatus such as the Πλοῦς Παύλου (‘Voyage of Paul to Rome’). The witnesses are: GA 181 (folio 71r), used by Lorenzo Zacagni in his editio princeps of the Euthalian Apparatus; GA 1836 (folio 8r), where it appears at the end of the prefatory material to the Catholic Epistles; and GA 436 (folio 54v), GA 2541 (folio 41r) and D 67604 (folio 91r), where it follows the book of Acts. In these codices, the inscription is introduced by the heading ἐπίγραμμα τοῦ ἐν Ἀθήναις βωμοῦ (‘Inscription on the altar in Athens’) and reads:

These manuscripts also include a brief commentary that contextualises the inscription within the narrative of Acts 17.23:

The inclusion of both the inscription and its commentary in these witnesses likely facilitated their integration into catenae. Indeed, the Athens altar ἐπιγραφή appears most often in catena manuscripts, frequently with textual variations that highlight the fluid nature of the tradition (Table 6).

Table 6.

The Inscription of the Athens Altar in the Catena Tradition

Manuscripts preserving both texts include representatives of Catena Abbreviata (C156), such as GA 1162, 1277 and 1859, as well as the first layer of GA 920 (Table 6, column 1).Footnote ⁴¹ In these frame catenae, the inscription and commentary are arranged in the margins and linked to the relevant passage of Acts 17.23 through cross-referencing symbols, following the pattern of other scholia. In another sub-set of this type, however, the inscription appears without the commentary, yet it is presented as a gloss connected to Acts 17.23 via symbol and introduced by the formula ἡ πᾶσα τοῦ βώμου ἐπὶγραφή (‘The full inscription on the altar’) (Table 6, column 2). Examples include GA 638 and 1739, as well as the first layer of GA 82 and 1424: in GA 82, the inscription is set in small majuscule characters, distinguishing it from the minuscule script used for the other scholia (Image 7). GA 1739, while lacking cross-referencing symbols, highlights the inscription using larger letters comparable in size to those used for kephalaia and quotation markers, suggesting that it was copied from a manuscript where the altar inscription had not yet been fully assimilated into the catena as a scholium.

Image 7.

GA 82, folio 41r: scholium with the inscription of the Athens altar in the first layer of a multi-layered catena.

Image 7 Long description

A scanned page from a handwritten Greek manuscript is shown. The main text block on the left is written in Greek script, featuring flowing lines of text. On the right, there is a separate cross-shaped arrangement of words, also in Greek. The manuscript appears aged, with a yellowed background. The text is written in dark ink and the script is consistent throughout. Some legible words from the cross-shaped section include PhiEta and AlphaGammaNuOmegaSigmaTauOmegaNu. The document is a scholium with the inscription of the Athens altar, part of a multi-layered catena. The visual layout includes a main text block and a distinct cross-shaped text block, reducing reliance on spatial orientation for understanding.

The digitised monochrome images are available online (https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/; https://gallica.bnf.fr).

In most manuscripts of Acts catenae, the Athens altar inscription is embedded within the broader commentary framework. For instance, in the Andreas catena abridged sub-type (C150.2), it appears as a scholium in C150.2b (GA 103, 455, 606, 607, 641, 2576) and in C150.2e (GA 608). However, it is not presented as an independent comment or numbered, but rather follows another scholium on the same passage, blending smoothly into the commentary sequence (Table 6, column 3).

Similarly, the ἐπιγραφή appears integrated within extensive commentary sections across various other chain types, including all sub-types of Pseudo-Oecumenius (C151) and Pseudo-Theophylact (C152), and codex singulus GA 1839 (C155.6) (Table 6, column 4).Footnote ⁴² In these instances, the text is often introduced with phrases such as Ἔστι δὲ ἡ πᾶσα τοῦ βωμοῦ ἐπιγραφὴ τοιαύτη or Ἦν δὲ ἡ πᾶσα τοῦ βωμοῦ ἐπιγραφή (‘The full inscription of the altar is/was as follows’). In GA 911 (C151.3), the inscription is duplicated by a second scribe in the margin, likely to highlight its significance beyond its inclusion in the catena (folio 40r). In each of these cases, the inscription is embedded within an anonymous extract reworked from Isidore of Pelusium (inc. Δύο αἰτίας εἶναι λέγουσι τοῦ ἐπιγράφεσθαι Ἀθήνῃσι τῷ βωμῷ, Ἀγνώστῳ Θεῷ) (Image 8).Footnote ⁴³

Image 8.

GA 250, folio 78r: inscription of the Athens altar embedded in a sub-type of the Pseudo-Oecumenius catena (C151.3).

The digitised monochrome images are available online (https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/; https://gallica.bnf.fr).

When discussing the altar’s theological implications, Isidore does not quote the inscription, indicating that it is not the source of the text. The Andreas catena full type (C150.1), which reproduces Isidore’s passage verbatim, also lacks the inscription, with GA 307 being the only manuscript to include it, though as a marginal supplement rather than within the catena (Image 9).Footnote ⁴⁴ In this manuscript, the inscription, written in small majuscule letters, stands out from the surrounding minuscule scholia. Since other marginal comments in GA 307 (e.g. on folios 108v, 128v) relate to type C156, it is possible that the altar text was drawn from this collection, where it was already presented as a scholium, as noted above.

Image 9.

GA 307, folio 132v: scholium with the inscription of the Athens altar in Andreas catena manuscript (C150).

Image 9 Long description

Scanned manuscript page containing multiple lines of handwritten Greek text written in minuscule script. The main body of text runs in continuous horizontal lines across the page. On the left margin, a column of smaller handwritten Greek text runs vertically alongside the main body, forming a distinct marginal annotation block. Toward the upper right area of the page, a cluster of larger majuscule Greek letters is visible, standing out from the surrounding minuscule script. Part ially legible sequences in the main body include characters resembling: tau omicron upsilon iota omega mu omicron upsilon and tau omicron mu iota omega. The marginal text on the left includes smaller letter sequences resembling: kappa pi alpha upsilon sigma alpha tau omicron upsilon beta omega and mu omicron upsilon epsilon pi iota gamma rho alpha phi eta. The larger majuscule cluster in the upper right reads approximately: Sigma upsilon rho omicron nu Kappa alpha iota omega and pi alpha rho alpha tau omicron. The handwriting throughout is in black ink on a pale background. No ruled lines, paragraph breaks, or section headings are visible. The full text cannot be reliably transcribed due to the cursive and abbreviated nature of the script. No diagrams, tables, or non-textual elements are present.

The digitised monochrome images are available online (https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/; https://gallica.bnf.fr).

Manuscript D 44336, not assigned to a known catena type, presents a unique handling of the inscription.Footnote ⁴⁵ This codex features an epitome of scholia on Acts, with the inscription embedded in an alternating-layout commentary (Table 6, column 5). What distinguishes this version is the use of the conjunction ὅτι (‘that is’), which connects the ἐπιγραφή to the narrative, integrating it smoothly into the flow of the commentary: Ὅτι εὗρον καὶ βωμὸν ἐν ᾧ ἐπεγέγραπτο… (‘That they found also an altar on which it was inscribed …’) precedes the inscription’s text, exemplifying the use of transitional phrases typical of the epitome genre.Footnote ⁴⁶

The transmission of the Athens altar inscription raises the question of whether it originated in the Euthalian Apparatus before integrating into the catena tradition, or vice versa. Textual comparison suggests that the Catena Abbreviata (C156), which links the inscription to Acts 17.23, likely drew from manuscripts where it appeared as a prefatory text. In some catena manuscripts, the inscription is followed by commentary, as in those where it serves as prefatory material, while in others it lacks commentary, likely due to the absence of need for clarification when placed with Acts, as opposed to when it appears appended to the Catholic Epistles. On the other hand, the inscription’s prominence within the catena tradition and its rarity outside it suggest it likely originated within this framework, possibly derived from Pseudo-Oecumenius (C151), a catena type that influenced later compilations like Catena Abbreviata (C156) and Pseudo-Theophylact (C152), both of which include the Athens inscription. Thus, catenae likely played a key role in transmitting and reshaping the text.

The origins of the Athens altar inscription are further complicated by its similarity to a passage in Jerome’s Commentary on Titus (CPL 591), which features a Latin rendering:

While the Latin version closely mirrors the Greek text, Jerome uses the plural Diis ignotis et peregrinis in contrast to the Greek singular Θεῷ τῷ ἀγνώστῳ καὶ ξένῳ. Jerome acknowledged this distinction, interpreting it as Paul’s reference to the one true God, but offered no explanation for his source or whether the altar still existed in his time. Comparing Jerome’s Latin text with the Greek tradition may offer insights into the early transmission of the inscription. Jerome’s Commentary on Titus (387 ce) predates the first recorded appearances of the Greek inscription in catena manuscripts (ninth-tenth centuries), which are linked to the Pseudo-Oecumenius and Andreas catenae, dating to the sixth and seventh centuries.Footnote ⁴⁸ This suggests that Jerome could not have encountered the inscription through the catena tradition. Could he have accessed it via the Euthalian Apparatus? The origins of the Euthalian Apparatus are contested, with the earliest manuscript evidence dating to the sixth or seventh centuries.Footnote ⁴⁹ If Jerome had access to a text resembling the inscription within an early edition of the Praxapostolos, it could illuminate the development of the Euthalian Apparatus and its links to Western traditions. The Greek text may have originally used the plural θεοῖς τοῖς ἀγνώστοις καὶ ξένοις, with the singular Θεῷ τῷ ἀγνώστῳ emerging as a scribal adjustment influenced by Acts 17.23. This shift could explain the absence of evidence for an altar inscribed to a singular ‘unknown god’ in the polytheistic Greek and Roman context.Footnote ⁵⁰ Alternatively, the Greek version may be a back-translation from Jerome’s Latin, a practice not uncommon in the transmission of Greek catenae drawing on Latin sources.

5. Aratus Quotation Marker at Acts 17.28

At the end of his speech on Mars Hill (Acts 17.28), Paul quotes a line from the Phaenomena, an epic-astronomical poem by Aratus of Soli (third century bce): Τοῦ γὰρ καὶ γένος ἐσμέν (‘For we too are his offspring’).Footnote ⁵¹ This quotation, widely discussed by early Christian writers, became part of the ἀνακεφαλαίωσις θείων μαρτυριῶν (‘List of Divine Witnesses’), a major feature of the Euthalian Apparatus.Footnote ⁵² This list, divided into short and long sections, includes quotations from various sources, such as the Old Testament, Jewish writings, early Christian literature and occasionally pagan authors. These quotations are marked in the text with cross-reference symbols, like diplai (>), and explicit source attributions. In Acts, the short list includes thirty-one witnesses, with the Aratus quotation marked as number κζʹ (27) and reading Ἀράτου ἀστρονόμου (‘from Aratus the Astronomer’). The long list adds an attribution to the poet Homer (eight century bce), reading Ἀράτου ἀστρονόμου καὶ Ὁμήρου ποιητοῦ (‘from Aratus the Astronomer and Homer the Poet’). Garrick Allen notes that while this dual attribution may reflect the plural ποιητῶν (‘poets’) in Acts 17.28, there is no obvious Homeric source.Footnote ⁵³ Leaving aside the unclear Homeric attribution, what stands out is that the Aratus-Homer citation often appears as a scholium in catena manuscripts, with textual variations and different cross-referencing methods to Acts 17.28. Let us examine a few examples.

In the Andreas catena (C150), the Aratus quotation marker appears in three manuscripts of the full type (C150.1): GA 307, 453 and 1895. All three witnesses present the reading Ἀράτου ἀστρονόμου καὶ Ὁμήρου ποιητοῦ. In the frame-catena manuscript GA 307 (folio 135r), the marker is inserted as an annotation in the inner margin, aligned with the corresponding verse but not integrated into the catena itself (Image 10). Its placement and use of small majuscule letters, consistent with other quotation markers in the manuscript, indicate it is treated as a genuine marker of the Aratus citation.

Image 10.

GA 307, folio 135r: unnumbered marker of Aratus quotation in the Andreas catena integra (C150.1).

The digitised monochrome images are available online (https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/; https://gallica.bnf.fr).

On the other hand, in the alternating catenae of GA 453 (folio 168r) and 1895 (folio 209r), the Aratus marker, still highlighted in small majuscule letters, is added in the margin and linked to Acts 17.28 using a graphical symbol (∻) above the relevant lemma and before the scholium. This approach resembles how extra scholia outside the catena are handled (e.g. GA 453, folios 51v, 57r). Furthermore, GA 453 lacks explicit quotation markers, using marginal diplai to indicate quotations without identifying sources. This suggests that here, as well as in GA 1895, the Aratus marker is evolving into a scholium rather than being perceived only as a quotation marker.

In Pseudo-Oecumenius (C151), the Aratus marker is found in only seven manuscripts of C151.3: the frame catenae GA 911, 1360, 1862, 1888, 424, 250, and the alternating catena GA 1842. It appears abbreviated as Ὁμήρου καὶ Ἀράτου, omitting the poets’ titles and reversing their order. In the frame catenae (except GA 911), the marker is highlighted in small majuscule letters and linked to Acts 17.28 with a graphical symbol placed in the interspace between the biblical text and the catena, typically reserved for extra scholia (e.g. GA 250, folio 73v; 1360, p. 104; 1862, folio 63r-v; 1888, folios 40v-41r). This contrasts with other markers, which are either numbered (e.g. GA 1360, p. 97; 1862, folio 49v; 1888, folio 38v) or indicated by diplai (e.g. GA 250 and 424). In GA 1842, the Aratus quotation is numbered κζʹ (27) in the margin by a second scribe, as the original hand omitted quotation markers and the manuscript lacks a prefatory list. Similarly, in GA 911, the Aratus marker was added later along with other paratexts, like the duplicated Athens altar reference (see above), but it remained unnumbered, unlike the original numbered markers (e.g. folio 21v). This evidence suggests that the Aratus quotation in C151.3 was not part of the original marker list but was instead treated as a scholium.

The largest group of catena manuscripts where the Aratus quotation marker blurs the line between an editorial feature and an exegetical scholium belongs to the Catena Abbreviata (C156). These witnesses present the quotation in various forms, including those seen in C150 and C151. The full version, listing Aratus first (Ἀράτου ἀστρονόμου καὶ Ὁμήρου ποιητοῦ), appears in GA 457, 1162, 1845 and 1885. The abbreviated variant, reversing the order (Ὁμήρου καὶ Ἁράτου), is found in layer 1 of GA 82 and 1424, GA 462 and 638. In GA 462, both forms coexist: the longer version is in the quotation list as part of the original text (folio 11v), while the shorter marker appears in the margin of Acts 17.28 (folio 44v), added by a different hand. Similarly, GA 1739 includes both variants (Ἀράτου ἀστρονόμου καὶ Ὁμήρου ποιητοῦ on folio 19r and Ὁμήρου καὶ Ἀράτου on folio 19v), though both were written by the same scribe. By contrast, GA 1870 includes only the reversed form while preserving Aratus’ title ‘astronomer’ (Ὁμήρου καὶ Ἀράτου ἀστρονόμου).

All these manuscripts, being frame catenae, place the quotation marker in the margins. In some, it is linked to the relevant lemma by a symbol, aligning with how other scholia are handled in these witnesses, rather than using the numbered system typical for other quotations. This approach is seen in layer 1 of GA 82 (Image 11) and 1424, as well as in GA 457, 462 and 1870. In GA 638, while no symbol accompanies the Aratus quotation, this omission is consistent with the graphical treatment of many other scholia in the manuscript. Interestingly, in GA 82, the Aratus quotation is distinguished from other rubricated quotation markers by its lack of rubrication, despite standing out from other minuscule scholia with its small majuscule script (Image 12). Similarly, in GA 1424, the Aratus quotation is also presented in small majuscule without rubrication.

Image 11.

GA 82, folio 41r: marker of Aratus quotation in small majuscule and cross-referenced through a symbol.

The digitised monochrome images are available online (https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/; https://gallica.bnf.fr).

Image 12.

GA 82, folio 33r: rubricated markers of Old Testament quotations.

The digitised monochrome images are available online (https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/; https://gallica.bnf.fr).

In other Catena Abbreviata (C156) manuscripts, the Aratus quotation is numbered κζʹ (27) and linked to the related short or long lists of the Apparatus. This is seen in GA 1162 and 1845, which preserve the fully developed form of the Euthalian Apparatus.Footnote ⁵⁴ By contrast, GA 1739 and GA 1885, which lack a quotation list, also omit any graphical symbol for the Aratus quotation – consistent with the absence of symbols for other quotation markers in these manuscripts. In GA 97 (possibly C156?) and 1839 (C155.6), the quotation marker is replaced by a scholium reading τοῦτο Ἀράτος ὁ ποιητὴς εἶπεν, ἀλλὰ περὶ Διὸς, οὐχὶ δὲ περὶ τῶν ὅλων τοῦ Θεοῦ (‘This Aratus the poet said, but concerning Zeus, not about the God of all’). While it is unclear if this reworks the marker or derives from another source – especially as the usual Homer attribution is omitted – it illustrates how editorial markers could be supplanted by exegetical annotations. This overlap highlights the fluid boundaries between scholia and Euthalian features in manuscript traditions.

The form and layout of the Aratus marker vary across manuscript clusters, indicating it was treated more as an interpretive note than a fixed quotation. The inclusion of Aratus has been debated, with Theodor Zahn questioning whether non-canonical sources could be considered ‘divine witnesses’.Footnote ⁵⁵ However, Allen notes that its consistent presence in many manuscripts highlights its importance in the Acts tradition, though more study is needed on non-biblical elements in these lists.Footnote ⁵⁶ The marker’s inclusion in catenae, often replacing numbered markers with symbols, points to a complex textual history that indicates its liminal status between a scholium and a quotation marker. Such evidence suggests that the Aratus marker may have been a later addition to the Euthalian Apparatus quotation list, integrated into an established system without disrupting the numerical sequence of citations – an editorial effort often seen in frame catenae, where symbols were used to incorporate new scholia while maintaining the sequence.Footnote ⁵⁷

While a definitive answer requires further investigation, it is noteworthy that in GA 1764, a frame-catena manuscript of the Catena Abbreviata (C156), the Aratus marker is missing from both the list of Acts quotations (folio 12v) and the marginal notes. Although the manuscript dates to the twelfth century, and earlier manuscripts do feature the Aratus marker, the omission may reflect an earlier stage in the manuscript’s transmission, before the marker was integrated. If correct, this suggests that the Aratus citation marker, later integrated into the editorial tradition of Acts, was not part of the original Euthalian quotation lists, partially supporting Zahn’s hypothesis that it did not belong to the ‘divine witnesses’, though his claim about these being solely canonical requires further scrutiny. Combining layout and textual analysis of quotation markers puts us on the right path for such a review.