C. presents a comprehensive account of Indian Ocean trade during the Principate from a Roman perspective in nine main chapters (and a summary chapter) based on written (literary, epigraphic, papyrological) and archaeological evidence. Topics range from the origins of the monsoon to the ethnic identification of Yavanas and the role of the State, and are thoroughly presented with counterarguments outlined, followed by C.’s own interpretation. The text is clear and easy to read, the bibliography is diverse, and there is a useful index.
The introduction (Chapter 1) defines the chronological parameters, outlines the methodology, reviews the development of the subject and importantly, establishes the key themes to be addressed, comprising: development of trade; barter and bullion; the peak period of Roman trade; schedules, practicalities and Roman diasporas; and Indian Ocean goods and Roman society. C.’s aim is to ‘provide a series of overreaching arguments and new perspectives and to challenge a number of long-standing theories’ (p. 6).
Chapter 2, ‘The Ptolemies and the Erythra Thalassa’, is substantial and, unlike most treatments of the subject, provides a very welcome discussion of the pre-Roman trade. It questions whether Roman trade represented a new development resulting from the annexation of Egypt as a province or a continuation of Ptolemaic period activity. Reviewing evidence for Ptolemaic activity from the Egyptian Red Sea, South Arabia, East Africa and India (particularly from Arikamedu), C. argues for an increase in the volume of trade during the Roman period, which he sees as a logical development of the existing Ptolemaic trade. While this conclusion is sound, in my view he overstates the amount of exchange that can be identified archaeologically during the Ptolemaic period and overinterprets the chronology of some artefact types. For example, the amphora sequence at Arikamedu is key to his argument, citing in support a progression from Koan (the prototype of the Roman double-rod handled Dressel 2–4) to pseudo-Koan to Italian Dressel 2–4 amphora imports (p. 59). A misunderstanding of these categories sets up a false evolution: some Koan amphorae are earlier than the Italian Dressel 2–4, but the two types also overlap substantially in date and, in this context, the term pseudo-Koan was used to refer to Italian Dressel 2–4s, not a separate type (E.L. Will, ‘The Mediterranean Shipping Amphoras from 1990–92 Excavations’, in V. Begley et al., The Ancient Port of Arikamedu: New Excavations and Researches 1989–1992 2 [1996], pp. 325–403).
Chapter 3, ‘Organisation and Finance’, investigates the ethnic composition of the Roman merchants/financers, the value of the cargoes and the size/constructions of transoceanic ships. Based primarily on ostraca and inscriptions, C. considers Graeco-Egyptians to be the main facilitators of trade with participation, but less than sometimes attributed, from Italians, and other involvement at specific moments, for example the Palmyrenes during the second/third centuries. The value of cargo is discussed mainly through the Muziris papyrus, which C. then links to the size and type of seagoing vessels. Here the recent archaeological remains of ship-related artefacts from Berenike and Myos Hormos demonstrate the rich interplay between where ships were constructed and where they were repaired.
Chapter 4, ‘The Roman State and the Indian Ocean Trade’, assesses the degree of involvement of the State, noting the important but not comprehensive role it played in security across the Eastern Desert, the Red Sea and even on oceanic voyages. While C. considers the issue of taxation to be secondary to security, ultimately the tetarte was safeguarded through security, so the two could be considered interlinked. The role of the Imperial family in Indian Ocean trade is left as an open question, requiring further evidence.
Chapter 5, ‘Trade Routes and Merchant Diasporas’, covers internal routes between the Eastern Desert and the Red Sea, sailing itineraries in the Indian Ocean, evidence for merchant diasporas throughout the region and the role of Yavanas. C. demonstrates that Eastern goods would be unlikely to reach Italy in time for profits to be used to finance the next departure for Egypt and the East, arguing that this put Italian financiers at a disadvantage to Egyptian ones and reinforces their secondary involvement concluded in Chapter 3. One might question whether such very wealthy groups would be reliant on single-year profits as presented here.
C. supports the presence of foreign communities in Egypt; Roman communities at African, Arabian and Indian ports are endorsed, but with some caveats, particularly noting the obstacles for Roman merchants reaching the east coast of India. This chapter also argues for primarily indirect contact with the Far East with Arikamedu a nodal point for the distribution of these goods.
The imports and exports between the Roman Empire and India are dealt with in two substantial chapters (Chapter 6: ‘Imports’ and Chapter 7: ‘Exports’). Chapter 6 includes a nuanced contribution of the luxury versus subsistence debate, arguing that a luxury item is not inherent in the object but influenced by context and situation of use, and that items such as pepper were within reach of non-elites. Chapter 7 emphasises, contrary to some of the older literature, that craft goods and staples formed part of transoceanic cargoes (pp. 216, 218).
As the most abundant Roman finds in India, amphorae and coins are treated in some detail, particularly the latter where it is argued that coins formed a continuous trade item and that what C. calls the batch-pattern hoards of aurei, in particular, support a peak of trade in the second half of the first century ce. However, the four hoards listed in support of this comprise a very small dataset for this conclusion. In the case of amphorae, fig. 7 is a conflation of ER and LR amphorae, torpedo jars and types of Indian pottery previously considered Roman, offering an inaccurate picture of its distribution throughout India.
Chapter 8, ‘Rome's Trade Balance with India’, concludes that the statistics relating to Indian Ocean trade do not allow the issue of a trade imbalance to be resolved. C. instead focuses on demonstrating that even on the smaller ships, coinage would take up only a fraction of the stowage space and that instead a very mixed cargo (including ballast, craft goods and staples, mentioned above) would have been shipped; this approach provides a fresh way of looking at cargo.
In Chapter 9, ‘The Peak of Roman Trade in the Indian Ocean’, C. sketches out his chronology of the trade, seeing it as intensive during the entire first century ce but with a peak in the second half of the first century. This is followed by decline in the second century although the trade is still considered significant. Suggestions for this downturn include decline in demand, security issues in the Eastern Desert and increased importance of the Persian Gulf route.
This book provides a wealth of valuable information and synthesis, but the reader should critically evaluate treatment of the archaeological material. C. states ‘The comparative dearth (but not absence) of Roman material remains in East Africa, southern Arabia, and India for the second century ce does seem to suggest, until subsequent discoveries prove otherwise, that certain archaeologically visible items were no longer so sought after’ (p. 298). Here C. lays down a gauntlet for future research – the establishment of a methodology by which to understand the organisation of trade despite the changing ebb and flow of specific trade items. One means to approach this, as here, is through the shifting importance of port sites across the region; another is to sharpen patterns by widening the chronology and more fully integrating non-Roman activity into the narrative.
