- accessibility

The BNA is extremely accessible both in terms of locating the facility and the actual process of conducting research there. After reaching the archives, new researches need only to complete a short application and present a letter of introduction from their home institution to receive a free reader’s card. This card provides entry into the document reading room and also serves as the means for requesting materials. The finding aides are available online and are searchable by word or phrase, date range, and department code. Files are requested electronically, and requests can be made nearly any time the reading room is open. Requested files are retrieved using a partially automated system that delivers them to the reading room via conveyor belt. They are then placed in numbered lockers that are assigned to researchers. My requested files were all delivered quickly, generally within thirty minutes. Researchers return files to a staffed desk where they are checked-in and returned immediately to the shelves.

- sources

The British archives contain several types of files that are useful for researching housing and development in Dar es Salaam, Tanganyika. These include records on housing research, official development plans, and CDW housing scheme funding requests. These files are all from the Colonial Office (CO), but the BNA also has records from other departments such as the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO), Foreign Office (FO), and the War Office (WO).

After acknowledging that some of its colonies and mandates, including Tanganyika, faced housing shortages the British government initiated research designed to solve these problems. These records of the Colonial Building Research Group, which was formed in the 1940s, are housed in series CO 1005 (“Records of Advisory, Research and Other Committees”), CO 927 (“Records of the Research Department”), and CO 859 (“Social Services Department and Successors, Registered Files: Social Welfare”). These records are not exclusively focused on Tanganyika, but the territory and Dar es Salaam are mentioned frequently. Archival holdings include minutes for the group’s meetings, reports of research trips to colonies, papers from the Building Research Station established in West Africa, and records from G.A. Atkinson, the Colonial Liaison Officer on Building Research at the station. For example CO 927/35/4 (“Research Building, Central Africa”) includes the 1949 “Report on African Housing” from the Central African Council. This document was intended to serve as a guide for anyone responsible for building African housing and provided a survey of current housing types, an overview of problems encountered, and offered some recommendations for future construction. One recommendation stressed the necessity of providing amenities to African housing. CO 927/6/7 (“Housing Research Center, West Africa”) offers additional suggestions for lowering construction costs such as finding new local materials and utilizing prefabricated homes. As multiple files note, including CO 859/490 (“Housing and Town Planning Africa”), many of these recommendations actually created new housing problems such as substandard construction and inadequate maintenance.

The BNA also contains Tanganyika’s Development Plans. These plans are found in series CO 691 (“Tanganyika: Original Correspondence”). For example CO 691/198 (“Development in Tanganyika, 10 Year Plan”) contains the first plan from 1946. The Tanganyikan government continued to revise its plans and produce new ones after 1946 and even released variations of them after independence in 1961. Britain’s Colonial Office tasked its colonies and mandates with preparing ten-year development plans as a condition of receiving funding from the CDW Act. These plans outlined development priorities and provided estimated project costs. These archival files contain the final development plans along with early drafts and comments from Colonial Office staff. One reason that these plans are so interesting is that they acknowledge the importance of satisfactory housing but still allocate relatively little money for African housing compared to other projects such as road construction and mining. In fact CO 691/208/2 (“Revised Development and Welfare Plan for Tanganyika”) shows that the 1950 plan proposed a pilot scheme to determine the best, meaning cheapest, types of African housing.

The BNA also contains the actual housing schemes proposed by Tanganyika to receive CDW Act funds. These proposals can be found in series CO 822 (“East Africa: Original Correspondence”). Specific files related to these proposed housing scheme include CO 822/589 (“African Urban Housing in Tanganyika”), CO 822/592 (“CDW Scheme for Urban Housing in Tanganyika”), and CO 822/2474 (“CDW Scheme for Construction of African Urban Houses in Tanganyika”). These files contain the actual applications for CDW funding, Colonial Office notes about these requests, and the final funding decisions. These funding requests are important since the CDW Act allocated a set amount of development monies to each colony but did not dictate how those funds were to be spent. Thus an application for funding was not guaranteed to be approved, and Tanganyika’s first proposed housing scheme was not funded immediately. Tanganyika’s application for CDW funds in CO 822/592 stresses the importance of funding African housing schemes suggesting that “improving housing conditions is the one which will affect most closely the day-to-day existence and, indeed, welfare of indigenous urban populations.” Not everyone in the British government agreed with this statement; a 1953 letter from file CO 859/490 makes clear that the Treasury Chambers did not want housing projects to take top development funding priority. These schemes did fund the construction of some housing, but these BNA files make clear that the number of completed homes was inadequate to deal with Dar es Salaam’s African housing shortages.

- unexpected materials

A joy and frustration of archival research is that it is rarely a straightforward or simple process. Relevant material is not always where you expect to find it. Sometimes files that sound related to a research topic are of little use, and sometimes the most important files might have ambiguous titles or descriptions. These surprises are a bit less likely to occur in the BNA due to the detailed electronic catalogue available to researchers. Not only do many file titles include date ranges, but the broad file record departments, such as Colonial Office, provide general indications of file content. Yet these good file descriptions do not mean that the BNA does not contain some unexpected materials.

One type of material that I found unexpectedly helpful was housing and development files for other African colonies including Kenya, Nigeria, and Uganda. These files outline issues similar to those faced in Dar es Salaam such as housing shortages and efforts to decrease construction costs. Yet they can also show slightly different reactions to these problems. For example CO 533/528/18 (“Nairobi Housing Scheme”) details funding requests to improve housing in Nairobi by providing social services, community centers, and recreational facilities. CO 822/1496 (“African Housing in Kenya”) includes proposals to make African housing cheaper while still providing important amenities such as water and sanitation.

Another set of very useful files concern the inclusion of refrigerators in Dar es Salaam’s European homes. Although these files are from the early 1930s and thus predate the CDW Act, they help to establish patterns of differing quality and amenity provision between African and European housing. These files, CO 691/109/1 and 691/118/1 (both titled “Refrigeration”), debate whether to supply European homes with refrigerators and what appliance brand would be the best choice; in fact a letter from Tanganyika Territory’s Governor even discusses comparison tests between a British brand (Electrolux) and an American brand (Frigidaire). These files also discuss the practicalities of repairing machines and the high cost of electricity in Dar es Salaam. The fact that these files focus on a luxury item when countless other files detail housing and water shortages in African residential neighborhoods helps to provide needed perspective on British perspectives toward housing. These unexpectedly interesting files underscore the importance of thorough archival research. Simply relying on files clearly focused on African housing and development in Dar es Salaam would certainly provide a wealth of information on research, funding, and proposed construction schemes. Yet by expanding the search to other colonies, time periods, and housing types, it is possible to understand the importance given to African housing policy in Tanganyika.

- limitations

There are some limitations to the materials at the BNA. These files generally do not present African voices since the holdings contain official reports, memorandums, and funding requests. Thus these archives present a one-sided, but important, view of housing policy. Also owing to the official nature of these materials, there are few references to policy failures. Certainly files do document housing shortages and inadequate provision of amenities such as drinking water or latrines yet files frequently offset these problems with statements that conditions in Dar es Salaam were not really that bad.

- accessibility

Compared with the BNA, the TNA is less accessible. First it is located on a small road with little signage to direct visitors to the correct building. Second it is much more difficult to gain access to the TNA in comparison to the BNA. All researchers in Tanzania must hold a valid research permit no matter what type of research they plan to do; the archival staff does check this permit before letting researchers access the reading room. This permit is issued by the Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology after a fairly extensive and expensive^{Footnote 2} application process. Potential researchers mail paper applications to the office and must pay the application and permit fees in travelers’ checks. The approval process for this permit can take many months and is not guaranteed. Even the process to collect an approved permit can be frustrating. For this research, I arrived in the permit office just as the staff was preparing to leave for a one week trip. Luckily they agreed to issue my permit before leaving because otherwise I would have been unable to access the archives. For future researchers to Tanzania, I would advise submitting the permit application as far in advance of a planned trip as possible. The Commission recommends allowing several months for applications to be processed. For this trip, I allowed over four months and still encountered problems. I would also strongly advise researchers to follow-up on their application by either email or phone. Because I emailed the office, I learned that I neglected to provide the name of a local collaborator in Dar es Salaam. Had I not followed-up with the Commission, my permit would not have been approved, and I could have arrived in Dar es Salaam unable to conduct my research. The research experience at the TNA also differs significantly from that of the BNA. The file requisition process in Tanzania is very informal. Researchers hand write file reference numbers on scraps of paper and present them to staff members for retrieval. Although more workers are now trained to retrieve files than in the past (when only one person was trained to retrieve files), there are certainly times when no workers are present in the reading room so researchers are unable to request new materials. Once files are retrieved, they are hand-delivered to the reading room. The wait time can vary substantially based on the number of files and how quickly the staff member begins the retrieval process. When researchers are finished with files they are given to staff members but are rarely returned to the shelves in a timely manner. Rather these files are added to existing piles of files on the reading room’s floor and spare tables. These stacks of files are rather tall, especially during the peak summer research season. Thus if another researcher has requested a file in the recent past, it is likely deemed “lost” by the staff since they are unable to locate it on the shelves. Sometimes re-requesting a file results in it being “found” but often researchers are forced to comb through the stacks of discarded files in the reading room in the hopes that they find that particular file. For this project, staff members were unable to locate several relevant files on housing schemes carried out during the CDW Act period. By sifting through stacks of files waiting for reshelving I was able to locate two of these files, both of which provided crucial housing data. The other files remained “lost,” either waiting to be returned to their storage shelves or truly absent from the archival collection.

The state of the Tanzanian archives has been addressed elsewhere in this and other journals.^{Footnote 3} Of particular concern is that many documents are deteriorating due to inappropriate storage facilities. Although accessibility has improved with an increased staff and thus faster file retrieval, researchers still encounter obstacles that make conducting productive research challenging. One major impediment to research is the electricity rationing that has plagued Dar es Salaam for much of the last decade. The city receives most of its electricity from hydroelectric sources, and recent droughts have created massive power shortages. The city is in the process of increasing its power supply by tapping into natural gas reserves, but until those projects are complete residents will continue to experience regular power cuts. These cuts, which generally result in the archives having no electricity for at least one eight hour workday per week, have a negative impact on research productivity. Not only can researchers not easily use their laptop computers, files cannot be retrieved during power cuts since they are stored in a room without windows. Though the process in Tanzania may be frustrating and slow at times, I certainly do not wish to suggest that the TNA should be avoided. It contains a wealth of information unavailable elsewhere and its materials are crucial for research topics such as this one on housing and development.

- sources

The TNA contains important information on housing that is relevant to this project. In particular, files provide details on the results of housing schemes. These files are contained in two categories of files: the Accession Series and the Late Secretariat Files. In general, files in the TNA make few direct references to the CDW Act in relation to housing. Instead these files provide details on the actual housing schemes proposed to the British government such housing needs, construction progress, amenity provision, and housing costs.

There are three Late Secretariat Files that are extremely relevant to this project. These are Secretariat Files 32575, Volumes 1, 2, and 3 (“Native Housing Schemes in Dar es Salaam Township – Ilala, Magomeni, and Ilala” respectively). For example Volume 1 contains a 1948 memorandum on African Housing that gives detailed figures on African population, existing housing stock including squatter housing, housing needs, and proposed housing developments. For example it estimates that over two-thirds of the city’s homes are overcrowded and that although 3,000 homes are required to alleviate shortages, plans call for the construction of just 250 homes within five years. Volume 2 outlines the development of Magomeni and the provision of amenities to its homes. Specifically the file’s various letters and notes, all written between 1949 and 1954, trace out the need for public water kiosks but document the exceptionally slow construction of these water sources. By 1953, hundreds of homes shared just one public water point. A recurring theme in these files is that the actual number of completed houses was significantly less than the stated goals in spite of large documented housing shortages. Likewise the files document the repeated shortcomings in amenity provision such as drainage, sewerage, and water. These volumes never explicitly mention the source of financing for these new housing schemes, but portions of funding did come from the CDW Act.

Other Late Secretariat Files also contain key details on housing. File 34055 (“Extension and Re-Planning of Native Town: Dar es Salaam”) contains a 1943 memorandum concerning a proposed extension of the African residential zone that discusses the number of houses and their locations in the existing residential area. File 37499 (“Proposed African Housing Schemes General Policy”) provides information on different categories of housing such as temporary and semi-permanent and explains the levels of amenities provided to each type. File 41949 (“Health and Sanitary Measures Dar es Salaam Municipality”) contains many letters and comments written from 1950-1952 by Silvester White, Dar es Salaam’s Chief Town Planning Officer, concerning amenities in Dar es Salaam’s African areas. In particular he advocates for home construction to begin only after these services are provided.

In addition to these Late Secretariat Files, there are also some Accession Series files related to housing and development. Accession Series 540 focuses on Dar es Salaam and contains files about housing including Acc. 540, 27/19 (“African Housing Scheme”). This file contains information on several African housing developments including Ilala, Magomeni, and Temeke. These records are particularly useful since they include African complaints about these neighborhoods such as full latrines, small kitchens, poor construction standards, flooding, a lack of shopping facilities, no electricity, and high rents in spite of the lack of services. Other useful files can be found in Accession Series 61 which contains Provincial Files from the Eastern Province. For example Acc. 61, 643/3 (“Township Development Sub-Committee”) contains one of the few direct references to the CDW Act funding for housing, proposing to use funds to construct a model housing estate and to develop the city’s Open Space. It also contains a 1944 memorandum titled “Development of African Areas of Dar es Salaam Township” that details the housing situation in two older African neighborhoods and the need for long-term planning to improve the existing unsatisfactory areas. Acc. 61, 4/3 (“Housing Accommodation – African Government Employees”) contains a 1945 letter from the Provincial Commissioner that proposes some unique solutions to the extreme shortage of African housing. For example he suggests that the construction of just twenty homes would create a positive psychological effect in the African population. Acc. 61, 4/2/III (“Housing Accommodation, Dar es Salaam”) includes the undated “Draft Memorandum on Housing in Dar es Salaam.” This document offers explanations for the deterioration of the city’s housing stock including population growth, inadequate construction, inadequate maintenance, and the use of homes as shops and social clubs. Like other files, it acknowledges a great housing demand but proposes a small amount of new housing stock.

- unexpected materials

Unlike the BNA, the TNA has much more potential for surprises in research. The finding aides, which are simply old books in the reading room, are unorganized and difficult to search. The file titles listed in these books are often very vague and make requesting relevant files difficult. In addition it is impossible to predict what each finding aide and category of material contains. As explained above, files on housing can be found in Late Secretariat Series files as well as multiple Accession Series. Likewise similar types of letters and notes can be found in both of these series. Thus short of reading every finding aide, it is impossible to find every file related to a topic.

These ambiguous file titles led to one of my favorite surprises in my archival research. This file’s title – “Press Communiqués from Dar es Salaam Township Authority” (File 29471) – led me to expect newspaper clippings or press releases summarizing Township Authority meetings and decisions. To my surprise, I found that the original title of this file was “Offensive Smells in Dar es Salaam Township.” This file documents a government discussion surrounding a 1941 proposal by the city’s Information Officer to release a press communiqué explaining the source of the city’s offensive smells. The government discouraged this communiqué both for its “slightly ridiculous nature” and because it suggested that government indifference caused the offensive smells. This file presents an interesting perspective on the importance the colonial government placed on the image and perception of Dar es Salaam.

Along with construction, the provision of amenities and the differences in African and European housing are important parts of this research. File 11452, Volume 2 (“Public Latrines – Erection of in Dar es Salaam Township”) discusses the need and desire for public toilets in Dar es Salaam, including both pit latrines for African use and flush toilets for European use. Although the proposed flush toilets were never constructed, these lavatories were originally proposed to be constructed of permanent building materials with a tiled roof (thus making their construction better quality than all African housing in the city) and would contain “display cases for the exhibition of local craftsmanship.” Like the unexpected files at the BNA, these files help situate African housing in broader colonial policy. In spite of severe housing shortages, the colonial government focused on city image and toilet quality rather than finding ways to meaningfully address the housing crisis.

- limitations

The major limitations of the TNA concern its accessibility. Poor storage facilities have led to file deterioration and lax requisition and reshelving procedures mean that files are not always available to researchers. Thus the research process there can be time consuming and frustrating. Another difficulty for researchers is that they are generally prohibited from taking photographs of materials (although that rule does not always seem to be strictly enforced). Likewise it is difficult to have photocopies of documents made, owing both to an old machine and the frequent power cuts.