The Distribution and Chronology of Tinned Ceramics

Tin-coated ceramic vessels have been found at a range of sites across the Aegean (Fig. 1). These concentrate in three regions; the Greek mainland, Crete and Rhodes. No examples have been reported from the Cyclades; this may be because there are so few known Late Bronze Age (LBA) Cycladic tomb sites.Footnote ²⁰ The following section provides an overview of their find locations. For further details see the Appendix.

Fig. 1.

Map of the Aegean, showing the sites from which tinned vessels are known or have been reported. (1) Archanes; (2) Armenoi; (3) Gournes; (4) Isopata; (5) Katsambas; (6) Knossos; (7) Kritsa; (8) Ligortyno; (9) Mavro Spelio; (10) Phylaki Apokoronou; (11) Sellopoulo; (12) Zapher Papoura; (13) Voudeni; (14) Argos; (15) Asine; (16) Berbati; (17) Dendra; (18) Mycenae; (19) Nauplion; (20) Prosymna; (21) Athens; (22) Varkiza-Vari; (23) Vravron; (24) Prosilio; (25) Tanagra; (26) Thebes; (27) Ambelofytou Lagou; (28) Ellenika Antheias; (29) Myrsinochorion Routsi; (30) Nichoria; (31) Peristeria; (32) Pylos; (33) Tourliditsa; (34) Tragana; (35) Kalapodi; (36) Kazanaki; (37) Ialysos; (38) Maritsa. Map by author.

Crete

There are 12 Cretan sites from which tinned vessels have been published or reported, including the earliest known example of a tinned vessel found thus far. No tinned ceramics have been reported in LM IIIC contexts.Footnote ²¹ The chronology of the Cretan finds is set out below with the exception of those from Archanes, for which there is no information beyond the fact of their existence (Kanta Reference Kanta1980, 315).Footnote ²²

Neopalatial Period (MM III–LM IB)

Recognised after a restudy of material from the Mavro Spelio cemetery,Footnote ²³ a tinned MM III–LM I conical cup was recovered from Tomb IX, which was in use from MM II–III (Alberti Reference Alberti2001, 185, 179 n. 24 fig. 6e). The archaeological record then seems to indicate a hiatus in their manufacture, as no tinned vessels have been reported from LM IA or IB contexts (Hatzaki Reference Hatzaki and Momigliano2007, 208). This lacuna may stem from a lack of analysis (Alberti Reference Alberti2001, 179 n. 24) rather than a temporary lapse in production; scholars have simply not expected tinned ceramics to appear in Cretan contexts pre-dating LM II.

Final/Postpalatial Period (LM II–IIIB)

Tinned ceramics have been recovered from two LM II contexts: Katsambas Tomb Γ (Alexiou Reference Alexiou1967, 47–8) and Isopata Tomb 5 (Evans Reference Evans1914, 24–5). The latter also contained ceramic vessels with polychrome decoration.Footnote ²⁴ The existence of such decoration highlights an apparent interest in the selective transformation of ceramics upon entry to the mortuary sphere that reached beyond tinning. LM IIIA1 tinned ceramics were also recovered from the Knossian region, at Katsambas and Sellopoulo (Table 1). Another possible contemporary example may have been found in the Temple TombFootnote ²⁵ at Knossos (Gillis Reference Gillis1991, 28).

Table 1.

Finds of tinned ceramics within LM IIIA1 assemblages.

Tinned ceramics continued to be deposited in this region during LM IIIA2 (Table 2). They were also present at Mavro Spelio during LM IIIA: a sherd from Tomb XIII tested positive for tin (Kanta Reference Kanta1980, 327). As noted by Hatzaki (Reference Hatzaki and Momigliano2007, 230), tinned ceramics were apparently not deposited in the Knossian region after LM IIIA2 (with the possible exception of Zapher Papoura Tomb 99).Footnote ²⁶ The assemblages at Zapher Papoura are smaller than those from Katsambas and Sellopoulo, although this may reflect the relative paucity of pottery from this site.

Table 2.

Finds of tinned ceramics from the Knossian region after LM IIIA1.

From LM IIIA2 onwards, tinned ceramics were found outside the Knossian region in West Crete at Phylaki Apokoronou and Armenoi, on the Mesara at Ligortyno and elsewhere in Central Crete at Gournes and Kritsa (Table 3). The number of vessels deposited in these contexts was also smaller, suggesting a possible decline in the tinned vessel assemblage size over time, although the extent of the presence of tinned ceramics at Armenoi has not yet been confirmed.

Table 3.

Finds of tinned ceramics on Crete beyond the Knossian region.

Greek Mainland

Tinned ceramics have been found at 24 sites on the Late Bronze Age Greek mainland. They are predominantly concentrated in the Argolid, Attica and Messenia (Table 4). The number of examples from Messenia is probably significantly underestimated because the majority have not been published; Korres reported tinned ceramics from Tourliditsa, Myrsinochorion Routsi,Footnote ²⁷ and Peristeria, and that examples were held at the Museums of Pylos, Chora and Athens (Korres Reference Korres1974, 152; Mountjoy Reference Mountjoy, Hägg, Nordquist and Wells1996, 55 n. 46). Pantelidou (Reference Pantelidou1975, 173) also reported at least eight further tinned vessels in the National Museum stores, which were apparently from Attica.Footnote ²⁸ Gillis suggested that other tombs at Mycenae and Dendra contained tinned ceramics (Gillis Reference Gillis, De Miro, Godart and Sacconi1996b, 1202 n. 18) and reported further sherds from an unknown tomb or tombs at Asine (Gillis Reference Gillis, Hägg, Nordquist and Wells1996a, 98). Four tinned kylikes from the cemetery at Tanagra, dated to LH IIIA–B, were previously on display at the Thebes Archaeological Museum (Demakopoulou and Konsola Reference Demakopoulou and Konsola1981, 85, 87); these are awaiting publication, and it is possible that further tinned vessels were recovered from this site. No LH IIIC tinned ceramics have been positively identified.

Table 4.

Number of sites in each region of the Greek mainland at which tinned vessels have been found and estimate of the total number of tinned vessels from each region.

Prepalatial Period LH I–II

The earliest known mainland tinned vessel is perhaps from a built chamber tomb, T.164, at Argos (Papadimitriou Reference Papadimitriou2001, 55–6 [P11] fig. 11a, pl. 8a). It was an unusual shape and is discussed in more detail below. Several tinned vessels were found associated with later burials in the same tomb (Papadimitriou Reference Papadimitriou2001). Three tinned goblets were found with other LH IIB vessels deposited during an early usage phase in Asine Tomb I:7 (Sjöberg Reference Sjöberg2004). There are no known examples outside of the Argolid from this period.

LH IIIA

The number and range of sites with tinned ceramics expanded dramatically during this period. Two pit graves in the southern cemetery at Athens, dated LH IIB–IIIA1, contained sizeable assemblages of tinned vessels (Pantelidou Reference Pantelidou1975). LH IIIA1 tinned ceramics are known from Asine,Footnote ²⁹ Athens, Dendra, Ellenika Antheias, Kalapodi and Varkiza-VariFootnote ³⁰ (Table 5). A tinned jug from Kalapodi had a separate piece of gold sheet around the base of its neck (Dimaki and Papageorgiou Reference Dimaki, Papageorgiou and Mazarakis Ainian2015, 854 fig. 7). This may indicate that the artisans who tinned it were unaware of the technique to recolour tin to resemble gold, even though the process was relatively simple (Gillis, Holmberg and Widelöv Reference Gillis, Holmberg, Widelöv and Vincenzini1995, 259).Footnote ³¹

Table 5.

Known examples of LH IIIA1 tinned ceramics.

LH IIIA2 tinned ceramics have been found at Asine, Berbati,Footnote ³² Mycenae, Nichoria, Prosilio,Footnote ³³ Thebes, Varkiza-Vari and Vravron (Table 6). Several contexts, which cannot be more precisely dated within LH IIIA, have also yielded tinned vessels. These are Athens Agora Tomb III (Immerwahr Reference Immerwahr1971), Mycenae Tomb 502 (Wace Reference Wace1932), Nauplion Evangelistria Tomb 3 (Piteros Reference Piteros2008; Reference Piteros, Schallin and Tournavitou2015),Footnote ³⁴ Tragana Tholos 1 (Kourouniotis Reference Kourouniotis1914; Gulgielmino Reference Guglielmino1979), Kazanaki tholos (Adrymi-Sismani and Alexandrou Reference Adrymi-Sismani, Alexandrou and Mazarakis Ainian2009) and Voudeni Tombs 4 and 75 (Kolonas Reference Kolonas2009). A tinned kylix sherd from Ambelofyto Lagou was also suggested to date to LH IIIA (Davis, Bennet, and Shelmerdine Reference Davis, Bennet, Shelmerdine, Betancourt, Karageorghis, Laffineur and Niemeier1999, 447).Footnote ³⁵

Table 6.

Known examples of LH IIIA2 tinned ceramics.

Many tinned vessels seem to have been deposited at Prosymna, although this was not noted in its publication (Blegen Reference Blegen1937). Immerwahr was the first to note nine tinned vesselsFootnote ³⁶ from Prosymna on display at the Athens National Museum, one of which could be securely identified as kylix no. 712 from Tomb XXXVII (Immerwahr Reference Immerwahr1966, 395). Later, Pantelidou identified another 19 in the National Museum stores (Pantelidou Reference Pantelidou1975, 173), confirming that at least six tombs contained tinned ceramics. Dimaki and Parageorgiou (Reference Dimaki, Papageorgiou and Mazarakis Ainian2015, 850) listed another three from the same site.Footnote ³⁷

LH IIIB

Four tinned vessels were recovered from Tholos III at Pylos (Blegen et al. Reference Blegen, Rawson, Taylour and Donovan1973; Pantelidou Reference Pantelidou1975),Footnote ³⁸ two from Asine Tomb I:2 (Gillis Reference Gillis, Hägg, Nordquist and Wells1996a; Sjöberg Reference Sjöberg2004), and one from Vravron Tomb 3 (Papadopoulos and Kontorli-Papadopoulou Reference Papadopoulos and Kontorli-Papadopoulou2014). Tinned ceramics continued to be deposited in Asine Tomb I:1 (Mountjoy Reference Mountjoy, Hägg, Nordquist and Wells1996; Gillis Reference Gillis, Hägg, Nordquist and Wells1996a) and at Varkiza-Vari (Polychronakou-Sgouritsa Reference Polychronakou-Sgouritsa1988).

Tinned Vessel Shapes

Some tinned vessels were recovered in too fragmented a state for their original form to be recognised. However, it has been possible to identify the shapes of 268 individually published vessels. A summary of their forms can be found in Table 7.Footnote ⁴² They can be broadly split into three categories; cups and bowls (Fig. 2),Footnote ⁴³ mixing and serving vessels (Fig. 3), and storage vessels (Fig. 4). Currently there are no known examples of tinned cooking vessels or tinned rhyta. Certain distinctive shapes are also absent from the tinned vessel assemblage, such as deep bowls and kraters. Clearly a process of selection took place.

Fig. 2.

Sketches of the known tinned cup and bowl forms. Only the most frequent tinned kylix variants are illustrated. From left to right; top: FS 267 kylix, FS 272 kylix, FS 265 kylix, FS 264 kylix; middle: handleless bowl FS 204, shallow angular bowl FS 295, Minoan conical cup; bottom: mug, deep cup, shallow cup. Drawing by author.

Fig. 3.

Sketches of the known tinned mixing and serving forms. Clockwise from top right: feeding bottle, stirrup jug, lekane, beaked jug; centre: dipper. Drawing by author.

Fig. 4.

Sketches of the known tinned storage forms. Left: stirrup jar; right: alabastron. Drawing by author.

Table 7.

Categories of shape found in the tinned vessel assemblages of the Greek mainland, Crete and Rhodes. SAB = Shallow angular bowl.

The most diverse range of tinned shapes is found on the Greek mainland, which may be because its published dataset is so much larger than that of Crete and Rhodes. The form of 199 individually published vessels from the Greek mainland could be identified. The majority are stemmed goblets, followed by handleless and shallow angular bowls. Tinned versions of several shapes, including the dipper, feeding bottle, mug and lekane, are known only from Varkiza-Vari. It has been suggested that the motivation to tin so many unusual shapes was to hide their worn paint (Polychronakou-Sgouritsa Reference Polychronakou-Sgouritsa1988, 100). This does not explain why the users of the tomb chose to deposit those specific vessels, once tinned, rather than less worn examples. Other rare forms include the stirrup jar, known from Asine and Nauplion, and a shallow cup, from Prosymna. An unusual deep cup was recovered from T.164 at Argos. It may have been derived from the Cycladic cup and its shape and handle are reminiscent of metallic forms; it was accompanied by LH I–IIA sherds, but the cup itself should be dated to final Middle Helladic (MH) or early LH I (Papadimitriou Reference Papadimitriou2001, 55). It may have been an antique when deposited, perhaps indicating why it was singled out for tinning. All known tinned jugs belong to the stirrup-handled type.

The majority of the 48 Cretan vessels for which details of shape have been published are stemmed cups (goblets, kylikes and champagne cups). As with the mainland assemblage, the shallow angular and handleless bowls are the next most popular tinned shapes. Pace Preston (Reference Preston2004, 329), tinned drinking vessels have been found in a LM II context, Katsambas Tomb Γ (Alexiou Reference Alexiou1967). The alabastra, from Isopata Tomb 5, are the only known tinned examples of this form. Two tinned stirrup jars were found at Zapher Papoura, and a tinned shallow cup and unusual tinned two-handled dish at Katsambas.Footnote ⁴⁴ Only one Cretan tinned jug is known, of a different form to mainland tinned jugs.

Only two tinned shapes are known from Rhodes: the kylix and shallow angular bowl. The former outnumbered the latter by 4:1. No handleless bowls have been found. However, these findings are based upon just 21 vessels, and therefore must be treated with caution.

Thus an apparent core of three tinned shapes can be recognised: the stemmed cup, the handleless bowl and the shallow angular bowl. As shown in Fig. 5, they collectively accounted for over 80 per cent of the tinned forms on Crete, over 90 per cent on the Greek mainland and 100 per cent on Rhodes. Establishing this core range took time; several of the earliest known assemblages, including Isopata Tomb 5 (Evans Reference Evans1914), Argos T.164 (Papadimitriou Reference Papadimitriou2001) and Katsambas Tomb Γ (Alexiou Reference Alexiou1967) contained different shapes. All three forms were only certainly present in a few contexts, which date to LH/LM IIIA at the earliest.

Fig. 5.

Pie charts comparing the percentage of stemmed cups, handleless bowls, shallow angular bowls and other shapes in the tinned vessel assemblages of Mainland Greece, Crete and Rhodes.

Mountjoy (Reference Mountjoy, Hägg, Nordquist and Wells1996, 55) suggested that Asine Tomb I:1 contained a set of tinned vessels, consisting of one closed pouring vessel and a variety of open shapes. However, three tinned jugs were found in this tomb,Footnote ⁴⁵ and it cannot be confirmed that the entire ‘set’ was deposited simultaneously. Tinned jugs are relatively rare; only two other contexts contained both a jug and open shapes. Non-tinned jugs may have been used instead, as Mountjoy (Reference Mountjoy2003, 166) suggests, although this undermines the notion that tinning was intended to create a distinct assemblage for mortuary rituals. Jugs are larger than cups and bowls, and require more tin for complete coverage; however, some tombs contained so many smaller tinned vessels that it is difficult to argue the rarity of tinned jugs was due to cost. This issue is discussed further below. It seems that small individualised pots, rather than larger communal vessels, were prioritised for tinning.

It is also evident from Fig. 5 that the stemmed cup dominated the tinned vessel assemblage in all three regions. They are absent from only five contexts yet are the sole constituent of 15 tinned assemblages.Footnote ⁴⁶ This indicates that, despite the core triad of tinned shapes, stemmed cups were the real focus of tinning. It is therefore interesting that they were not among the first known examples.

In many cases the variant of stemmed cup could be recognised; these are shown in Table 8.Footnote ⁴⁷ On the Greek mainland 57 stemmed cups with rounded bowls were recovered from 27 different contexts, whereas 40 stemmed cups with angular bowls were recovered from 15 different contexts. On Rhodes the figures are eight rounded stemmed cups from seven different contexts, and seven angular stemmed cups from five different contexts. Among the rounded stemmed cups there is no clear predominant form in either region.

Table 8.

Comparison of the variants of stemmed cups on the Greek mainland and Rhodes. The first figure shows the total frequency, the figure in brackets the number of contexts in which each variant was found.

In every context on the Greek mainland and Rhodes where tinned shallow angular bowls are present tinned angular stemmed cups are also found, although the converse is not true.Footnote ⁴⁸ Such a relationship does not exist between handleless cups and angular stemmed cups. A special relationship between angular kylikes and shallow angular bowls has been mooted by Thomas (Reference Thomas, Gauss, Lindblom, Angus, Smith and Wright2011), and this may provide additional evidence to support such a hypothesis. Whether this means that tinned vessels can be linked to the deliberate archaising move away from continuously curving to angular profiles discussed by Thomas (Reference Thomas, Gauss, Lindblom, Angus, Smith and Wright2011, 303) is less certain. Almost all examples of tinned angular stemmed cups were accompanied by rounded bowl versions as well.Footnote ⁴⁹ Although the latter are commonly interpreted as drinking vessels, it has been argued that the angular type should be associated with food consumption, as should the shallow angular bowl (Tournavitou Reference Tournavitou1992, 200; Lis Reference Lis, Hitchcock, Laffineur and Crowley2008, 145; Thomas Reference Thomas, Gauss, Lindblom, Angus, Smith and Wright2011, 301). The widespread presence of the angular kylix therefore demonstrates that tinned vessels were used for eating as well as drinking rituals. Coupled with the rarity of tinned jugs, the use of tinned sets as evidence for drinking rituals specifically must be treated with caution.

Tinned Vessel Production

Immerwahr (Reference Immerwahr1966, 382) noted that the majority of tinned vessels recovered from Athens Tomb III were technically inferior or unfinished, with preliminary smoothing but no technical slip or final polishing. This could indicate that these vessels were earmarked for tinning before their manufacture was complete. However, examples with well-finished surfaces have been found at other sites, such as Asine (Mountjoy Reference Mountjoy, Hägg, Nordquist and Wells1996) and Argos (Papadimitriou Reference Papadimitriou2001), and also in Athens Tomb III, alongside unfinished examples.Footnote ⁵⁰ Furthermore, some vessels were clearly already painted before tinning took place. Examples are known from Asine,Footnote ⁵¹ Varkiza-Vari,Footnote ⁵² Nauplion,Footnote ⁵³ Armenoi,Footnote ⁵⁴ Ialysos,Footnote ⁵⁵ and possibly Argos.Footnote ⁵⁶ Pantelidou stressed that, in some cases, their paint was well worn, implying that these vessels had had a significant use life before being tinned and deposited (Pantelidou Reference Pantelidou1975, 174). A similar pattern is visible at Varkiza-Vari. Unfortunately, investigation of these trends is hampered by the patchiness of the information provided on surface treatment, which is only available for a limited number of tinned vessels.

Their quality also varied widely, even at the same site. This was the case on Rhodes (Benzi Reference Benzi1992, 6). At Varkiza-Vari many tinned vessels were poorly manufactured (Polychronakou-Sgouritsa Reference Polychronakou-Sgouritsa1988, 100). On Crete, they tended to be made using a fine buff fabric (Hatzaki Reference Hatzaki and Momigliano2007, 216). The tinned vessels from Kalapodi were made from good-quality ceramic but details of their construction were poor, causing problems such as lopsidedness; Dimaki and Papageorgiou (Reference Dimaki, Papageorgiou and Mazarakis Ainian2015, 850) suggested this showed indifference from the potter. It is possible that some vessels selected for tinning directly after manufacture were seconds, especially if they were only to be used once. However, there are also many examples of tinned vessels that met the same quality standards as ordinary pottery. Overall, this variability in quality and process of manufacture demonstrates that there was no single chaîne opératoire for the production of tinned vessels. The patterning of this variability indicates that it was not the result of regional or chronological differences.

Immerwahr (Reference Immerwahr1966, 392) suggested that tinned ceramics were primarily manufactured in workshops situated at Knossos and Mycenae, due to their known distribution and apparent connection to C and D Type swords. This hypothesis has been undermined by discoveries of tinned vessels across a much broader area of the Aegean. Pantelidou (Reference Pantelidou1975, 174) argued against the supply of tinned vessels to Athens by a Mycenae-based workshop, as 19 of the 20 examples found in the southern cemetery had the same clay as ordinary unpainted Athenian pottery. Immerwahr (Reference Immerwahr1966, 393) also accepted that some vessels must have been tinned locally, such as those from Ialysos that were originally painted or had a fine surface treatment. A provenance analysis of A863 from Ialysos first gave east Attica as a production centre, which was then altered to Knossos–Thebes, although this should be treated with caution (Jones Reference Jones1986; Benzi Reference Benzi1992, 7). Tinned vessels may have been exported (D'Agata Reference D'Agata2015, 89) or perhaps used in gift exchange (Reeves Reference Reeves2003, 248); however, it is likely that the coating would have been damaged by lengthy periods of transit. Their strong association with mortuary contexts implies that, even if some tinned ceramics were exchanged prior to deposition, this was unlikely to have been the primary motivation for their production. It is perhaps more probable that vessels were traded before being tinned. Further research through provenance analyses would be welcome, in order to examine the networks behind the manufacture of tinned vessels.

Tinned Ceramics in the Mortuary Sphere

Tinned ceramics have been found within a variety of different mortuary assemblages. In most cases it is not possible to tell exactly which other objects accompanied the tinned vessels into the tomb. This is because grave goods, including tinned vessels, and previous burials were often displaced when a new burial took place.Footnote ⁵⁷ They were therefore treated the same as other ceramics. Objects were sometimes removed from tombs (Wolpert Reference Wolpert, Barrett and Halstead2004, 135), so only part of the assemblage remains. Some tombs containing tinned ceramics were later reused, providing another opportunity for objects to be removed (Dickinson Reference Dickinson2006, 178), or were looted.Footnote ⁵⁸ However, a general overview of the preserved assemblages can provide some information about the treatment of tinned ceramics during and after deposition in tombs.

Generally, tinned ceramics are found alongside untreated vessels. In some cases, both tinned and non-tinned versions of the same type have been found in the same tomb;Footnote ⁵⁹ therefore, tinned ceramics do not wholly replace ordinary ceramics in mortuary assemblages. There are several tombs from which both metal and tinned ceramics were recoveredFootnote ⁶⁰ and it is occasionally possible to see that both formed part of the same burial assemblage.Footnote ⁶¹ Therefore, it is difficult to argue that tinned ceramics were always conceptualised as direct replacements for metal vessels; this issue is discussed in more detail below. Tinned vessels have also been found alongside stoneFootnote ⁶² and ivory vases.Footnote ⁶³ Thus tinned vessels formed part of a wider vessel assemblage. There is no evidence to suggest that they were singled out for deposition in shafts, niches or other features in tombs (contra Borgna Reference Borgna2004, 268). Where tinned vessels have been found within such features, they were accompanied by other ordinary ceramics.Footnote ⁶⁴

The number of tinned vessels per tomb varies widely from a single specimen to an assemblage of at least 31. These large tinned groups were rarer and need not have been deposited together. For example, as the tinned vessels in Asine Tomb I:1 range from LH IIIA1–IIIB (Mountjoy Reference Mountjoy, Hägg, Nordquist and Wells1996, 64–6), it is more likely that this assemblage was built up through multiple acts of deposition. The size of the tinned assemblage may have depended upon the frequency of ceramic deposition practised within a cemetery, as seen at Zapher Papoura.

Several scholars have remarked on the fact that tinned vessels seem to have been associated with richer tombs (Immerwahr Reference Immerwahr1966, 388; Mee Reference Mee1982, 18; Gillis Reference Gillis, De Miro, Godart and Sacconi1996b, 1202–3). In contrast, less extravagant mortuary assemblages containing tinned vessels, such as at Berbati, have been used to argue that tin was relatively plentiful and easily accessible (Warren Reference Warren1985, 207).Footnote ⁶⁵ As discussed above, the original contents of each tomb are difficult to ascertain. The definition of a ‘wealthy’ tomb is also not straightforward.Footnote ⁶⁶ However, such a relationship does seem possible, given the proportion of tombs containing both tinned vessels and gold: 57.5 per cent.Footnote ⁶⁷ This gives only a rough impression, as several tombs without gold did contain other probable high-value materials, such as silver or ivory, alongside tinned ceramics. Tin itself was costly (Gillis Reference Gillis, Olausson and Vandkilde2000, 231); that it can change colour may have added to its value (Gillis Reference Gillis, Olausson and Vandkilde2000, 234), as might its rarity in the Aegean as an unalloyed metal. It is important, therefore, to approach tinned vessels as a luxury item (Mountjoy Reference Mountjoy1995, 31); this viewpoint makes the discovery of tinned ceramics in well-furnished tombs unsurprising.

Tinned Vessels outside the Mortuary Sphere

Almost all tinned vessels have been found in mortuary contexts. One exception is the tinned kylix stem found at Ambelofyto LagouFootnote ⁶⁸ in Messenia (Davis, Bennet, and Shelmerdine Reference Davis, Bennet, Shelmerdine, Betancourt, Karageorghis, Laffineur and Niemeier1999, 447). This small habitation site, suggested to be the remains of an unfortified agricultural centre (McDonald and Hope Simpson Reference McDonald and Hope Simpson1961, 237 no. 40), has been badly eroded by intensive cultivation (Hope Simpson Reference Hope Simpson1965, 65; McDonald and Rapp Reference McDonald and Rapp1972, 267). It seems an unlikely find location, given that many tinned vessels are associated with well-furnished tombs. This find could indicate that tinned ceramics had a role outside the mortuary sphere, although it may equally have been a stray from a workshop, perhaps indicating their production in the locality. Unfortunately, the damage wrought upon this site during recent decades has severely lessened the likelihood that further investigation will take place in the foreseeable future.

The other exception was a kylix from the LM II destruction levels at the Unexplored Mansion at Knossos (Popham and Catling Reference Popham and Catling1974, 208 n. 9). Unfortunately any traces were destroyed by acid and it is impossible to verify whether the coating was tin or another substance.Footnote ⁶⁹ In situ remains from these levels suggested that it or a neighbouring area had been used for metallurgical activities (Popham et al. Reference Popham, Betts, Cameron, Catling, Evely, Higgins and Smyth1984, 262). The tinned vessel does not provide evidence of domestic usage, but may indicate that tinning was carried out by metallurgists, not potters.Footnote ⁷⁰ However, the extent of the involvement of metalworkers in tinned ceramic manufacture cannot be resolved by one untested sherd. Further evidence is needed before such issues can be addressed.

The Silver Vessels from the South House at Knossos

The South House, constructed in MM III/LM IA, stood at the south-west corner of the palace at Knossos (Mountjoy Reference Mountjoy2003, 1). It was not perhaps an elite residence per se, as it lacked substantial storage facilities, but may have been used for special purposes, such as receiving or accommodating important visitors (Lloyd Reference Lloyd, Glowacki and Vogeikoff-Brogan2011, 175). This building was destroyed in LM IA, possibly by an earthquake (Mountjoy Reference Mountjoy2003, 25). Three silver bowls and a silver jug were discovered in the tough clayey debris from this destruction event, in the north-west corner of the Pillar Crypt 0.75 m above its floor; it is presumed that they fell from an upper storey (Evans Reference Evans1928, 387; Mountjoy Reference Mountjoy2003, 10). As they were discovered nested together Evans (Reference Evans1928, 387) suggested they were originally stored in a wooden box, which kept them together as they fell.

All four vessels were raised from silver plate and, except for one bowl, were without ornamentation (Davis Reference Davis1977, 105–7). The decorated bowl had a row of six large repoussé running spirals with two parallel grooves under the rim; it had an offset foot and no handle (Davis Reference Davis1977, 106 no. 15 figs 79, 80; Evans Reference Evans1928, 387 fig. 221a [HM 403]). The largest bowl was also handleless with a simple rim, although its lower section was not preserved (Davis Reference Davis1977, 107 no. 16 fig. 82; Evans Reference Evans1928, 387 fig. 221d [HM 401]). The third bowl could also be described as a cup. It had a single loop handle above an everted rim with a flat bottom and offset foot (Davis Reference Davis1977, 107 no. 17 fig. 83; Evans Reference Evans1928, 387 fig. 221c [HM 402]). The accompanying jug had a flat base, continuously curving walls and everted rim, with a handle formed from a silver-plated copper rod, fastened by three rivets (Davis Reference Davis1977, 105–6 no. 14 fig. 78; Evans Reference Evans1928, 387 fig. 221b [HM 404]). Evans (Reference Evans1928, 387) noted that all four had exceedingly thin walls.

Mountjoy (Reference Mountjoy2003, 166) suggested that these silver vessels may have constituted a ceremonial group on the basis of similar but later tinned sets. None of the South House silver vessel shapes have appeared in tinned ceramic. As discussed above, tinned jugs are infrequent finds, and therefore tinned sets containing drinking and pouring vessels are rare. Furthermore, such sets are also common in ordinary pottery; there seems to be no strong reason to link the South House group to a specific practice that was also conducted using tinned ceramics. Rather, the association of drinking and pouring vessels appears to be a standard convention. It therefore seems somewhat counterintuitive to use tinned ceramic vessels to support the interpretation of the South House group as a ceremonial vessel set, when the joint deposition of drinking and pouring vessels that were not tinned was far more frequent.

The Silver Vessels from Chamber Tomb 10 at Dendra

Five tinned kylikes were recovered from Dendra chamber tomb 10, in Shaft II (Persson Reference Persson1942, 92–3 nos 41–5). Deposited within the same pit were four other ceramic vessels, a gilded ivory bowl, a silver spoon and five silver vessels (Persson Reference Persson1942, 87–94). It had not been sealed with slabs or the like, although four pots were placed directly above it (Persson Reference Persson1942, 87). The tomb's only skeletal remains were located in Shaft I, alongside pieces of gold, glass, faience and amber jewellery, gold rosettes, a sealstone and a gold cup (Persson Reference Persson1942, 74–87). The chamber contained two scale pans, gold and glass beads and 11 ceramic jars, jugs and alabastra (Persson Reference Persson1942, 63, 65–70, 73). This tomb was apparently used only once for a single interment in LH IIIA1 (Persson Reference Persson1942, 95). It contained an unusually high number of metal vessels, even within this relatively wealthy cemetery.Footnote ⁷⁵

The appearance of silver and tinned ceramic vessels side-by-side in Shaft II is very intriguing and has been used to argue for a special relationship between the tinned and silver vessels; the former carefully chosen to reflect the latter. The similarities between the assemblages are clear, but their differences have been overlooked.

The silver vessel set contained a common standard form of shallow cup, with a gilded rim (Persson Reference Persson1942, 90–1 no. 39). The contents of Shaft II do include a ceramic version; however, it was not tinned. As mentioned above, only three examples of tinned shallow cups are known, none of which attempt to emulate the wide decorated rim found on so many silver versions including the Dendra chamber tomb example (Fig. 6). Therefore, as discussed above, although they shared similar profiles and handles, such tinned shallow cups lacked an important feature that was often deliberately emphasised on their metal counterparts through elaborate decoration and gilding. This highlights yet again the separation in visual appearance between tinned ceramic and metal vessels.

The assemblage includes no silver analogue for the tinned FS 272 kylix (Persson Reference Persson1942, 93 no. 45). There is also no more than a passing resemblance between the one-handled gilded silver goblet decorated with birds (Persson Reference Persson1942, 89–90 no. 37) and the tinned FS 271 kylix (Persson Reference Persson1942, 93 no. 44).

In fact, only three vessels from each group can be said to share a strong resemblance. The most striking of these concerns the silver stemmed krater (Persson Reference Persson1942, 87–8 no. 34) and the large tinned FS 263 kylix (Persson Reference Persson1942, 92 no. 41). Despite a minor discrepancy in size, it is very likely that their deposition sprang from a conscious decision to link the two groups. The silver stemmed krater is the only known example of its type in metal and is the largest silver vessel from a securely dated post-LH I context on the Greek mainland (Aulsebrook Reference Aulsebrook2012). The FS 263 kylix is the only certain tinned example of this variant. The presence of these two similar, yet unusual, vessels in the same context is unlikely to be a coincidence.

The other four vessels are two tinned FS 267 kylikes (Persson Reference Persson1942, 92 no. 42 and 93 no. 43) and two almost identical silver versions (Persson Reference Persson1942, 88 no. 35 and 89 no. 36). There are only minor discrepancies between them in terms of size and exact profile.

Analysis of the three silver vessels suggests a shared production source. All three have a plate riveted inside the bowl to seal off the stem, the same rim formation and the same handle type, and share the same details of their handle attachment (although the stemmed krater has an additional rivet, probably to counteract the greater weight of the vessel) (Davis Reference Davis1977, 273–5).

The correspondence between the sets has therefore been exaggerated.Footnote ⁷⁶ Three tinned and three silver vessels appear to have been chosen for deposition due to their close similarity. However, the other tinned and silver vessels in the same shaft are much more akin to other vessels in the same material than to each other.

The Silver Vessels from the Tholos Tomb at Kokla

The tholos tomb at Kokla contained a set of seven silver vessels, four kylikes and three handleless bowls, as well as a gold shallow cup and ivory plaque. There was little pottery in the tomb, but the finds seem to indicate a date of LH IIB–IIIA1 (Demakopoulou Reference Demakopoulou, Driessen and Farnoux1997, 104). The tomb itself is architecturally unusual, combining the characteristics of a tholos and chamber tomb; the dromos and part of the entrance were cut into bedrock, whereas the chamber walls and stomion jambs were of dressed stone (Demakopoulou Reference Demakopoulou, Driessen and Farnoux1997, 104).

The silver vessels were all associated with the bench; four upon it and three on the floor beneath, the latter neatly stacked within each other (Demakopoulou Reference Demakopoulou, Hägg and Nordquist1990, 117–19 figs 6–12). There is good reason to believe that the four kylikes were made in the same workshop and possibly even by the same artisan.Footnote ⁷⁷ The handleless bowl shape is too simple for any similar interpretations to be drawn. It is a relatively rare shape in the Aegean metal vessel repertoire.Footnote ⁷⁸

One notable difference between tinned kylikes and the Kokla kylikes is the latter's decoration.Footnote ⁷⁹ However, it was relatively simple, unobtrusive and not particularly apparent from even a short distance away. Both the kylix and handleless bowl were frequently tinned. The redundancy of forms in this group is also reminiscent of tinned vessel assemblages, and very unusual in post-LH I precious metal assemblages. The probable common workshop for the four kylikes suggests they were made for use together as a set. The placement of the silver vessels around the focal point of the bench also indicates a possible role for them within the mortuary ritual (Demakopoulou Reference Demakopoulou, Hägg and Nordquist1990, 121–2).

The Silver Vessels from the Dendra and Vapheio Tholoi

Scholars have not drawn either of these two silver vessel assemblages into the debate concerning the relationship between silver and tinned vessels. A brief glance at their shapes suggests why this may have been the case. In the Dendra tholos four silver vessels were uncovered in the undisturbed LH IIIA1 Pit I. A stemmed goblet (Persson Reference Persson1931, 33 no. 5), a shallow cup (Persson Reference Persson1931, 33 no. 6) and a Vapheio cup (Persson Reference Persson1931, 33–4 no. 7) were found together at the north end, while at the southern end lay a wishbone-handled hemispherical cup (Persson Reference Persson1931, 38 no. 1). This pit also contained a gold shallow cup, bronze objects, jewellery, sealstones and the skeletons of a man and woman; other finds within the tholos, also contained within pits, include a further burial, other human and animal skeletal material and a significant quantity of ash and charcoal mixed with the burnt remains of ivory, metal and stone objects (Persson Reference Persson1931). The form of the silver stemmed goblet bears little relation to those found in the contemporary ceramic corpus and the other three shapes are apparently either rarely or never tinned.

The untouched LH IIA cist grave in the otherwise looted Vapheio tholos contained two silver Vapheio cups (Davis Reference Davis1977, 258–60 nos. 105 and 106), an incomplete silver jug (Davis Reference Davis1977, 261–3 no. 108) and two further silver cup fragments: a segment from a rim and part of a handle (Davis Reference Davis1977, 261–2). Other finds include the two famous gold Vapheio cups decorated with scenes of bull-catching, a collection of bronze weapons and vessels, pottery and a significant number of seals (Tsountas Reference Tsountas1889). The two Vapheio cups and jug share the same decoration, a simple motif of parallel grooves grouped in triplets; this may indicate that they were intended to be used together as a vessel set. Also to be considered alongside these silver vessels is a complete shallow cup manufactured from silvered copper,Footnote ⁸⁰ which would have had the appearance of solid silver (Davis Reference Davis1977, 260–1 no. 107) and a fragment from another silvered copper shallow cup (Davis Reference Davis1977, 262). Therefore, this tomb contained at least six silver or silvered copper vessels. Their forms, where discernible, are apparently either rarely or never found in the tinned ceramic corpus, just like those in the Dendra tholos.

Kokla: Chicken or Egg?

Although the above discussion has demonstrated that the link between tinned and metal vessels is less strong than previously believed, it is still necessary to account for the very close ties between the Kokla group (and, to a lesser extent, the Dendra chamber tomb group) and the tinned ceramic phenomenon. The first known Aegean tinned vessels are earlier than the use of either the Kokla tholos or Dendra tomb 10, yet it took time to establish a standard repertoire of tinned shapes. The use of these tombs and the increased standardisation of tinned assemblages were apparently roughly contemporaneous. Given their similarities, and putting the more complex Dendra chamber tomb group to one side for a moment, it is worthwhile considering two different scenarios:

1. 1. Standardisation in tinned vessel assemblages was inspired by the use of silver vessel groups with a similar composition to that found at Kokla.

2. 2. Standardised tinned vessel assemblages inspired the manufacture of specialised silver vessel groups with a similar composition to that found at Kokla.