Growth of the Sector

The SAC sector has expanded considerably over the past century and continues to grow to meet the needs of society (Hand & Baxter, Reference Hand and Baxter2013; Mullan, Reference Mullan2013; Thompson, Cooper, Flanagan, Crawford, & Worsley, Reference Thompson, Cooper, Flanagan, Crawford and Worsley2006). Originally, many SAC services operated as recreational programs for children and often operated in community playgrounds (Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). However, as their activities moved into community halls and schools, care and education were demanded, rather than just recreation (Cartmel, Reference Cartmel2007; Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). In the 1980s, SAC services further expanded as women's participation in the workforce exponentially increased (Brennan, Reference Brennan1998; Elliott, Reference Elliott1998; Gifford, Reference Gifford1991, Reference Gifford1992; Hand & Baxter, Reference Hand and Baxter2013; Moyle, Meyer, & Evans, Reference Moyle, Meyer and Evans1997; OECD, 2001). The main function of SAC services during this time was to offer care for children while their parents were working (Cartmel, Reference Cartmel2007; Hyams, Reference Hyams2005).

As services changed focus and grew in size, systems and regulations pertaining to these services altered. In 1998, the Commonwealth of Australia introduced Outside School Hours reforms, which provided subsidies for program costs for parents (Cartmel, Reference Cartmel2007). In 2002, a National Quality Assurance process was introduced. Prior to the introduction of formal quality assurances, services could operate independently from their host location, but the regulatory changes meant SAC services were now required to negotiate and communicate about space in shared venues (Cartmel, Reference Cartmel2007). In 2006, the uncapping of the childcare benefit was approved in the Australian federal budget to increase places available in SAC services (Cartmel, Reference Cartmel2007). Initiatives such as the 2009 National Early Childhood Development Strategy (Council of Australian Governments, 2009), the 2011 My Time, Our Place (MTOP) Framework (DEEWR, 2011), and the 2012 National Quality Framework (ACECQA, 2012) have all placed increasing demands on quality service delivery for SAC services in Australia, changing the focus from care to education and development (Cartmel & Grieshaber, Reference Cartmel and Grieshaber2014; Dockett & Perry, Reference Dockett and Perry2014). The SAC sector has seen an increase in the development of relevant policies and regulation.

Organisation and Service Types

There are many organisations that administer and manage SAC services. These include church bodies, community groups, Family Day Care services, Long Day Care services, local schools and not-for-profit community organisations such as the Police Citizens Youth Club (Department of Education, 2011; Kennedy & Stonehouse, Reference Kennedy and Stonehouse2007; Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). Consequently, the structures of administration, service delivery and support can differ depending on the type of SAC service (Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). For example, SAC coordinators who deliver the services in schools often receive support from principals and administrative staff within the school (Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). However, interactions between school principals and SAC coordinators can be problematic due to power-based imperatives (Cartmel & Grieshaber, Reference Cartmel and Grieshaber2014). Misunderstandings can occur when principals and school staff perceive themselves as more important than the SAC workforce, potentially undermining the operation of the SAC service and the SAC workforce's feelings of efficacy in the children's lives (Cartmel & Grieshaber, Reference Cartmel and Grieshaber2014). To avoid this, respectful communication and interaction between SAC workforces and school staff is essential. Being open and non-judgmental, and engaging in generative listening to consider each other's perspectives is needed to create a collaborative partnership to support children and families (Cartmel & Grieshaber, Reference Cartmel and Grieshaber2014; Dockett & Perry, Reference Dockett and Perry2014).

Throughout Australia there are state-based peak organisations to support SAC services. For example, Network of Community Activities in New South Wales has been involved with SAC for more than 60 years (Finlason, Reference Finlason2004) and, in Queensland, support, professional development and networking opportunities for SAC workforce are available from the Queensland Children's Activity Network (QCAN) (Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). Support from both the management body and QCAN is essential for coordinators of SAC services to have more time to plan quality care programs, rather than focusing on administration and meeting accreditation or quality standards (Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). The advocacy of the peak organisations has supported services to respond to systemic challenges associated with the growth of the sector.

SAC services are viewed as critical to the children and families who use them (Simoncini, Caltabiano, & Lasen, Reference Simoncini, Caltabiano and Lasen2012; Winefield et al., Reference Winefield, Piteo, Kettler, Roberts, Taylor, Tuckey and Lamb2011). However, SAC has a much lower profile than other types of childcare and school. SAC has been considered the “poor relation” in childcare (Cartmel, Reference Cartmel2007) and the “Cinderella of services” (Gammage, Reference Gammage2003). Early childhood services are expected to offer both care and education for young children, whereas school-aged children are assumed to be educated at school and cared for by SAC services until their parents collect them (Department of Family and Community Services (FaCS), 2005; Elliott, Reference Elliott1998). The perception that SAC services have limited operational hours has contributed to the low standing of this type of care (Cartmel, Reference Cartmel2007). The split sessions of before and after school disguise the actual operating hours of SAC services, which is equivalent to five hours per day. If these sessions are combined with school holidays and pupil-free days, some SAC services operate for nearly the same amount of time as schools. Over the course of the school years, the time spent in SAC has the potential to make up a sizable portion of children's lives and, as such, most probably influence their development (Dockett & Perry, Reference Dockett and Perry2014).

Perhaps it is the continued use of the term “care” that perpetuates the low regard for SAC. Traditionally in Australia, SAC has not been viewed as making any instructional, developmental or social capital contributions to a child (Gifford, Reference Gifford1992). Instead, it is has been viewed as child-minding, fulfilling a parental need rather than being of benefit to children. This is in direct contrast to the United States, where the hours out of school are recognised as a context for social, cognitive and physical development (Mahoney, Parente, & Zigler, Reference Mahoney, Parente, Zigler, Meece and Eccles2010; Vandell & Posner, Reference Vandell, Posner, Friedman and Wachs1999). Researchers, policy makers and governments in the United States have become increasingly interested in how out-of-school time can be used as an opportunity for children and adolescents to learn and develop competencies (Mahoney, Vandell, Simpkins, & Zarrett, Reference Mahoney, Vandell, Simpkins, Zarrett, Lerner and Steinberg2009). Indeed, over the last decade, US research investigating after school programs has increased exponentially (Durlak, Mahoney, Bohnert, & Parente, Reference Durlak, Mahoney, Bohnert and Parente2010). A comparable Australian initiative to guide practice in SAC services is My Time, Our Place-Framework for School Age Care in Australia (DEEWR, 2011). The Framework builds on the Early Years Learning Framework to support the ongoing development of children who attend SAC services (DEEWR, 2011). It suggests that children have opportunities to participate in leisure and play-based activities that are responsive to their needs, interests and choices (DEEWR, 2011).

Parent Expectations and Needs

Research shows that there are a range of concerns that parents face when accessing SAC care, including the location of the services, affordability and hours of operations (Baxter & Hand, Reference Baxter and Hand2016; Hand & Baxter, Reference Hand and Baxter2013; Winefield et al., Reference Winefield, Piteo, Kettler, Roberts, Taylor, Tuckey and Lamb2011). In addition, the specific concerns of mothers seeking SAC arrangements for their children have received considerable attention in the literature (Hand & Baxter, Reference Hand and Baxter2013; Winefield et al., Reference Winefield, Piteo, Kettler, Roberts, Taylor, Tuckey and Lamb2011). For parents in general, location is a key concern given the importance of transport in after-school arrangements (Winefield et al., Reference Winefield, Piteo, Kettler, Roberts, Taylor, Tuckey and Lamb2011). Services often have an added cost when children are required to be transported from the school grounds to the SAC facility. Partly in consequence, SAC facilities are becoming more readily available on school grounds because of transport barriers, and it appears important that these barriers continue to be alleviated for parents (Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012).

Secondly, service costs have been recognised as a barrier for parents, and have been identified as a factor in determining the use and type of care chosen for children (Baxter et al., Reference Baxter, Hand and Sweid2014; Winefield et al., Reference Winefield, Piteo, Kettler, Roberts, Taylor, Tuckey and Lamb2011). In the United States, Christensen, Schneider, and Butler (2011) assert that mothers in low-income families are less likely to seek employment and qualifications because of the unaffordability of SAC. Hand and Baxter (2013) noted that affordable care is a primary expectation for parents who are seeking employment or undertaking study.

Finally, the operating hours of SAC services have been identified as a barrier for parents seeking after school arrangements for their children (Baxter & Hand, 2016; Winefield et al., Reference Winefield, Piteo, Kettler, Roberts, Taylor, Tuckey and Lamb2011). Parents, especially working mothers, have expressed the need for more flexible- and longer-operating hours for SAC services in order to accommodate changing employment patterns (Baxter & Hand, Reference Baxter and Hand2016; Winefield et al., Reference Winefield, Piteo, Kettler, Roberts, Taylor, Tuckey and Lamb2011). This, in turn, will reduce pressure on parents to find multiple care arrangements and potentially increase parental satisfaction with SAC services (Baxter et al., Reference Baxter, Hand and Sweid2014). Increasing operating hours also ensures that children are provided with safe and comfortable care arrangements while their parents are working, particularly into the early or late evening (Baxter et al., Reference Baxter, Hand and Sweid2014).

Service Venues

In Australia, the majority of SAC services are located on school grounds, and this is regarded as ideal for a number of reasons (Cartmel, Reference Cartmel2009; Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). First, schools often have pre-existing resources-such as playgrounds, ovals, sporting and classroom equipment that can be used by the SAC service to aid in children's development and entertainment (Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). Moreover, because transport is often a concern for parents when accessing SAC services (Baxter et al., Reference Baxter, Hand and Sweid2014), having the service on the school grounds alleviates the added cost and stress of making transport arrangements for the child before or after school (Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). Having SAC services on school grounds also has the potential to build effective relationships between school staff, families and SAC staff. By acting as conduits for interaction between families and school, SAC staff may be able to support children's transitions between, for example, different year levels or changed circumstances at home (Cartmel, Reference Cartmel2007; Dockett & Perry, Reference Dockett and Perry2014).

However, despite the advantages of having SAC on school grounds, there are also a number of issues with co-location. For example, Simoncini and Lasen (Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012) have identified power struggles between some schools and SAC services. Some of the SAC programs do not have a dedicated space, but, rather, use empty classrooms or halls, which can require SAC staff to frequently shift locations (Gammage, Reference Gammage2003; Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). There is also a tenuous arrangement for purpose-built SAC spaces (funded by the SAC management) that become school property under Queensland government policy (Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). The spaces can be used by school administrators as additional classrooms, leaving the SAC service without a dedicated, secure venue (Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). Consequently, SAC staff can feel like “outsiders” in the school environment, even though they work within the school grounds (Cartmel, Reference Cartmel2007; Dockett & Perry, Reference Dockett and Perry2014).

Overall, the evidence suggests that there are both advantages and disadvantages to having SAC facilities on school grounds, and that the advantages mostly benefit parents’ needs while the disadvantages are felt by the service staff. However, by no means all SAC services are necessarily located on school grounds (Department of Education, 2011). SAC facilities can be based at churches, community halls, not-for-profit organisation venues and Family Day Care services (Cartmel, Reference Cartmel2007; Department of Education, 2011; Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). In countries such as China and the United States, interesting initiatives have been shaped to accommodate the needs of the community. In China, freight containers have been converted into SAC facilities for the children of migrant workers (Xinhau News, 2011). This came about due to concerns that the children of migrant parents had no suitable place to go after school (Xinhau News, 2011). In the United States, two apartments in San Diego have been converted into an after-school facility, where undergraduate Social Science students from the local university run the program (Barkhauus, & Lecusay, Reference Barkhauus and Lecusay2012). Clearly, SAC services are adaptable to a variety of venues to suit the needs of the community.

Workforce Needs

Within the literature the issue of workforce needs is discussed from two perspectives: the perspective of the wider Australian workforce in terms of accessing services, and that of the staff delivering SAC services. Research suggests that the increase in SAC services relates directly to the growing needs of the Australian workforce (Cartmel & Grieshaber, Reference Cartmel and Grieshaber2014; Hand & Baxter, Reference Hand and Baxter2013), with Winefield et al. (Reference Winefield, Piteo, Kettler, Roberts, Taylor, Tuckey and Lamb2011) noting that SAC services are vital to parents’ ability to work, especially in the case of single-parent families. According to Hand and Baxter (Reference Hand and Baxter2013) and Winefield et al. (Reference Winefield, Piteo, Kettler, Roberts, Taylor, Tuckey and Lamb2011), many parents are unable to fulfill their supervisory responsibilities for children due to conflicting and rigid work schedules, and this situation applies equally to families where both parents or sole parents (in the case of single-parent families) are employed. Researchers including Hand and Baxter (Reference Hand and Baxter2013) report that it is, however, more often mothers who experience conflicts in work scheduling and care arrangements, and reduce work hours in order to care for their children (Baxter & Hand, 2016; Hand & Baxter, Reference Hand and Baxter2013; McNamara & Cassells, Reference McNamara and Cassells2010). Conflicts between family and work responsibilities are also likely to impact negatively on a mother's health and wellbeing (Winefield et al., Reference Winefield, Piteo, Kettler, Roberts, Taylor, Tuckey and Lamb2011), which can have a bearing on the wellbeing of the whole family.

In terms of services’ workforce needs, Simoncini and Lasen (Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012) found that the employment of high-quality staff was linked to supportive line management and administration provision. There are, however, identified problems with recruiting and retaining staff, which are attributed to the low status of the profession, the low pay, insecure working conditions and limited career or training advancements (Misko, Reference Misko2003; Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). Staff turnover is notoriously high, and this is concerning because it “results in a lack of continuity of care for children and problems for services in relation to time spent in staff recruitment and training” (HAFS, 1997, p.17). Due to the low pay and the status of the SAC profession, employees are often unwilling to undergo further training and pursue the professional development needed to deliver quality SAC services to children (Simoncini, Cartmel, & Young, Reference Simoncini, Cartmel and Young2015; Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). Moreover, SAC workers already have the highest rate of under-qualification in the care or education sectors, exacerbating SAC's low status within the field (Simoncini & Lasen, Reference Simoncini and Lasen2012). Training and qualifications are not only needed to equip staff to problem solve and respond appropriately to changing circumstances, but also to attract additional investment in research and scholarship (Cartmel, Reference Cartmel2007; Wheelahan, Reference Wheelahan2007). By doing so, SAC services may be able to address misconception that SAC services are there solely to meet the needs of working parents, and instead promote services as a context for a child's social, cognitive and physical development (Bell, Reference Bell2013; Bell & Cartmel, Reference Bell and Cartmel2014; Dockett & Perry, Reference Dockett and Perry2014; Mullan, Reference Mullan2013).

Children's Wellbeing

Studies showed that SAC services are able to improve children's emotional, cognitive and social development when quality care and developmental programs are provided (Hurst, Reference Hurst2013; Winefield et al., Reference Winefield, Piteo, Kettler, Roberts, Taylor, Tuckey and Lamb2011). Such quality programs offer an environment that values cognitive stimulation and nurtures safe, unstructured play, and acknowledges the importance of quality social interaction (Winefield et al., Reference Winefield, Piteo, Kettler, Roberts, Taylor, Tuckey and Lamb2011). In addition, services that provide “developmentally appropriate opportunities” appear to reap positive outcomes for the child and their families (Dockett & Perry, Reference Dockett and Perry2014; Elliott, Reference Elliott1998; Simoncini et al., Reference Simoncini, Cartmel and Young2015). In the United States, research has found that children who attend SAC services are less likely to experience social dissatisfaction and loneliness than children who are in other care arrangements such as familial or self-care (Demircan & Demir, Reference Demircan and Demir2014). Therefore, when quality SAC services are provided for children, there is the potential to enhance a child's emotional, cognitive and social development.

SAC services also have the potential to improve the health outcomes of children since they provide them with opportunities to be active and make healthy food choices (Sangster, Eccleston & Porter, Reference Sangster, Eccleston and Porter2008; Thompson et al., Reference Thompson, Cooper, Flanagan, Crawford and Worsley2006). Demircan and Demir (Reference Demircan and Demir2014) reported that SAC services have been shown to improve children's eating behaviours and the amount of physical activity in which they engage, and according to Sangster et al. (Reference Sangster, Eccleston and Porter2008), SAC services operate in optimal time periods when children are also most likely to be active. SAC services are therefore well placed to promote healthy lifestyles and physical activities, potentially serving a health promotion role by aiding the prevention of obesity, heart disease and Type 2 diabetes both when children are young and in later life (Sangster et al., Reference Sangster, Eccleston and Porter2008; Thompson et al., 2006).

However, while health promotion may be effective in the SAC context, there are a number of barriers to implement these types of programs (Sangster et al., Reference Sangster, Eccleston and Porter2008; Thompson et al., Reference Thompson, Cooper, Flanagan, Crawford and Worsley2006). Due to limited training, support and resourcing in the SAC sector, many services are not currently planning meals specifically to enhance the health of the children in their care (Sangster et al., Reference Sangster, Eccleston and Porter2008). Moreover, insufficient space and play equipment can be a barrier to SAC services providing active choices for children before and after school (Thompson et al., Reference Thompson, Cooper, Flanagan, Crawford and Worsley2006). Consequently, there is scope for SAC program coordinators and staff to be trained to provide creative opportunities for physical activity, both with- and without-access to play equipment and space (Thompson et al., Reference Thompson, Cooper, Flanagan, Crawford and Worsley2006).