Medieval sea fisheries of Western Europe focused principally on two main species: cod and herring. James Barrett and David Orton's edited volume draws together evidence for the changing exploitation of these species (alongside other freshwater and marine fish) across an extensive geographic and temporal range spanning the North Atlantic, North, Baltic, and Irish seas, principally in the period c. ad 500 to ad 1550. The origins of this volume stretch back well over a decade, and in particular to questions raised by an article published in 2004 by Barrett and his colleagues (Barrett et al., Reference Barrett, Locker and Roberts2004). This article, ‘“Dark Age Economics” Revisited: The English Fish Bone Evidence ad 600‒1600’, drew together evidence from across the UK to identify a stark increase in the presence of marine fish bones in the years surrounding ad 1000 alongside evidence for the transportation of increasing numbers of these fish to inland sites, changes which went hand-in-hand with the emergence of the market economy and origins of urbanisation. The archaeological indicators for this Fish Event Horizon were found to be echoed in continental material, leading the authors to question whether the rapid transition to marine fish consumption was also taking place on the European continent at the dawn of the second millennium ad; and where its origins and drivers may have lain.
Leading on from ‘“Dark Age Economics” Revisited’, the primary lines of enquiry are introduced by Barrett in Chapter 1 and form the main strands which tie the volume, and the work of over twenty different specialists, together. The publication addresses a series of key themes including the origins, drivers, and chronology of marine fish exploitation in a wealth of detail, and sets out evidence surrounding key periods of intensification of fishing practices within Western Europe. In particular, these include the origins of sea fishing in the early Middle Ages; the Fish Event Horizon; the second-stage commercialization of the fisheries from around the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (see Ch. 8 and Kowaleski, Reference Kowaleski2003); and the origins of northern European commercialized fishing enterprises (Barrett et al., Reference Barrett, Locker and Roberts2004). Alongside the archaeological and historical questions, the volume also addresses areas of interest for ecology including the connection between marine fishing and over-exploitation of aquatic species, both in terms of whether sea fishing occurred as a result of over-exploitation of freshwater species, and also whether the medieval sea fishing itself could have led to the overfishing of cod and herring.
Following on from Barrett's introductory chapter, the papers which follow are grouped by methodological perspective, into those which tackle the subjects from an historical or settlement based approach (Part I, Chs 2‒10); and those which use zooarchaeological or stable isotope analysis (Part II, Chs 11‒21). The papers focus on a number of key geographic areas. The Baltic region, Poland, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Belgium, Britain, and Ireland all receive attention, and a key strength of the volume is that the majority of these areas are dealt with by different authors using a range of methodological approaches.
Given the pre-eminence of the Dutch in the maritime arena, and the extent of the exploitation of the Dutch herring fisheries, particularly in the later medieval and post-medieval period (see, for example, Poulson, Reference Poulson2008), the absence of any chapters dealing specifically with their contribution to medieval sea fishing is perhaps a little surprising. However, authors throughout the volume refer to the Dutch fisheries and the concluding chapter indicates that synthesis of evidence from the Netherlands is currently underway. The Dutch evidence is also given great attention within the volume Beyond the Catch (Sicking & Abreu-Ferreira, Reference Sicking and Abreu-Ferreira2009). The scope of the current publication is similar to that edited volume; covering the same broad geographic area with overlapping temporal scopes, wide-ranging perspectives, and consideration of the origins of commercial fisheries and the impacts of pre-industrial fishing on marine ecology. However, while the broad study areas of these publications coincide, the individual papers generally focus on different countries, allowing the volumes to complement one another.
Returning to Cod and Herring, Chapters 2 to 6 take historical approaches to deal, respectively, with commercial sea fisheries in the Baltic from c. ad 1000–1600 (Ch. 2, Holm), the development of commercial sea fisheries in medieval Britain (focused on the period from ad 900–1200) (Ch. 3, Kowaleski), and commercial fisheries in northern Norway (Chs 4‒6, by Nielssen, Nedkvitne, and Sørheim respectively). The latter also take into account settlement archaeology alongside historical documentation and evidence for fishing equipment. The next two chapters take historical and archaeological approaches to understanding commercial fishing in thirteenth century Iceland (Ch. 7, by Vésteinsson) and a second stage of commercialization in the country during the fifteenth century (Ch. 8, Gardiner). Chapter 9 (Breen) considers the historical and archaeological evidence for sea fishing in medieval Ireland. The first section of the book ends with historical and archaeological evidence of the decline in the consumption of stored cod and herring in sixteenth to nineteenth century England (Ch. 10, by Locker), giving wider context to the earlier studies. Although dealing with different areas, the chapters demonstrate considerable coherence giving insights into exploitation of herring and cod across the study area, with consideration of an impressive array of sources including studies of economies, ecology, climate, and politics.
These chapters are complemented by those occurring later in the book, focusing on the results of archaeological investigation and scientific study. Examination of the evidence for fish trade and exploitation in the Baltic during the Middle Ages is presented in Chapter 11 (Lõugas), Poland in Chapter 12 (Makowiecki et al.), and Belgium in Chapter 14 (Van Neer & Ervynck). Chapters 15‒17, by Harland et al., Orton et al., and Reynolds, respectively, consider the English evidence from two urban centres (York and London), and two high status centres (Bishopstone and Lyminge), highlighting the relationship between fish consumption and the growth of urban centres alongside social dimensions of consumption. Medieval Ireland is given consideration in Chapter 19 (Hamilton-Dyer), and Chapter 20, by Müldner, focuses on the stable isotope analysis of marine protein consumption in medieval Britain, giving further insights into the social dimensions of fish consumption and presenting data from some of the sites mentioned in earlier chapters (e.g. Bishopstone), supporting the overall coherence of the volume. Chapters 13 (Enghoff) and 18 (Hufthammer) deal principally with Scandinavian zooarchaeological evidence from Denmark and Norway, respectively.
Of the key themes of the book, namely the chronology, origins, drivers, and ecological implications of sea fishing in the Middle Ages, we turn first to chronology. The volume has much to offer with regard to the exact chronology of the origins and intensification of sea fishing, and many of the studies present archaeological datasets with high chronological resolution (see, for example, Chapters 15 and 16 by Harland et al. and Orton et al. respectively) or refer to precisely dated historical documents (see Part I). The concluding chapter by James Barrett draws together the overall chronological narrative of the volume, leading to a revision of the period of the Fish Event Horizon. This is expanded to cover the period ad 850 to 1050 to encompass the wider changes in the importance of marine fish noted by the separate authors across much of the area covered by the current volume. At present this is well attested by English and Scottish evidence, and evidence from Belgium currently also concurs with the English evidence. However, the possibility of earlier evidence on the Continent is noted. The concluding chapter draws these different lines of evidence together and suggests that the Fish Event Horizon may not have been as rapid as previously thought, and in some areas there is evidence of more gradual change, such as in Flanders. However, the work of the authors and editors leads to the conclusion that ad 850–1050 does represent a period of expansion in fishing activity and consumption.
The Danish evidence presented by Enghoff in Chapter 13 covers a much larger time frame than the main remit of the volume, addressing zooarchaeological remains from the Mesolithic to post-medieval periods. The evidence presented in this chapter provides insights into the wider context in which changes to fishing practices in the Middle Ages occurred. The chronology of the fish trade is a key theme of the volume and the prehistoric background is of particular relevance to Scandinavian and Baltic countries, where evidence for marine exploitation and potential trade in sea fish occurred earlier than elsewhere. This leads us to origins.
The key questions set out in by Barrett in Chapter 1 include study of the origins of trade in the low-value staples such as were salted herring and dried cod, and recognition of when that trade became pan-European. The zooarchaeological evidence presented from Denmark supports an earlier date of sea fishing focused on herring exploitation from around the sixth to seventh centuries ad. These conclusions sit comfortably within the context of earlier studies which have identified more intensive sea fishing in Scandinavia compared with elsewhere in Europe prior to the Fish Event Horizon (e.g. Perdikaris, Reference Perdikaris1999; Wickler & Narmo, Reference Wickler and Narmo2014). The volume goes on to present pan-European evidence for gradual changes in the exploitation of aquatic species during the late seventh century and throughout the eighth century and puts forward a range of complex factors connected with these changes, not least of which were urbanisation and the role of elite centres. These drivers form another key strand running throughout the volume. A key contribution of the work of the authors and of the volume as a whole is the demonstration of pan-European trends and connections while also emphasising and exploring specific sites and their local conditions (social, geographic, economic, etc.).
A particularly interesting area of developing research is the ability of archaeology to contribute to understandings of past human impacts on marine environments, and the implications of these impacts for future conservation and management in the marine sphere (e.g. Rick & Erlandson, Reference Rick and Erlandson2008). In their identification of the Fish Event Horizon, Barrett and his colleagues pinpointed a hundred year period between ad 950–1050 (though now expanded to AD 850‒1050) as the origin of the approach to exploitation which led to the decimation of marine fish populations prompting the current fishing crisis: a critical period for future research. Scientifically-based and contextualised studies of past fishing practices and intensities, as presented in this volume, have clear relevance to studies of human impacts on past marine ecosystems. Chapter 5 (by Nedkvitne) in particular addresses these issues head on, comparing historic catch levels with modern day sustainable catch limits, demonstrating that according to historical sources fisheries of the Middle Ages did not reach unsustainable levels (p. 56). Many working in this area fail to give clear and concise details as to the exact relationship between the archaeological data and thresholds for sustainability. The clear presentation of these data within the publication is a great strength, and provides very welcome reading.
The temporal and geographic scope of the volume is large (covering the period from ad 500 to 1550, across the North Atlantic Ocean, and the Irish Sea, North Sea, and Baltic Sea), and the context is broad, encompassing historical, environmental, social, economic, and demographic connections. Despite the large range, the volume has great coherence, expertly walking the reader through the key issues and providing insights into marine fisheries on a pan-European scale. Overall, the volume is an impressive compilation encompassing the work of a large number of specialists, and provides what researchers will doubtless use as a future framework for investigating marine exploitation during this era.
