INTRODUCTION: OLBIA PONTICA AND THE CULT OF APHRODITE

Olbia Pontica was one of the most important ancient Greek settlements on the north coast of the Black Sea. The religious life of its civic community was concentrated at its central and western temene (Fig. 1), where many terracottas, moulds for their production and a coroplast's workshop have been discovered. The two temene were situated in the centre of the upper part of the city and were divided from each other by a central street. The western temenos functioned from the early the sixth century bc (M.V. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva2006; Buiskikh Reference Buiskikh2015b, 6) and contained the sanctuaries of Apollo Ietros, the Mother of the Gods, and lesser ones of Dioskouri, Hermes and Aphrodite, as well as of Aphrodite with other gods. Two inscriptions provide evidence of an abaton of Aphrodite in the western temenos (A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva2005, 299). The central temenos started functioning later, during the third quarter of the sixth century bc; in the Hellenistic period it became a place for the worship of Apollo Delphinion, Zeus and Athena (Levi Reference Levi1985, 71–88). These temene constituted the elements of a single sacral zone and functioned simultaneously throughout the history of the polis.

Fig. 1.

Map of Olbia Pontica (based on Kryzhytskyi and Kariaka Reference Kryzhytskyi and Kariaka2017), marking findspots of bust thymiateria: И; Р-25 (the area of southern temenos); W (western temenos), E (eastern temenos).

Over one-thousand terracottas, many of them broken into pieces, have been discovered in the deepest bothros of the central temenos; they are in need of comprehensive study. So far, only the best-preserved finds have been published (Levi Reference Levi1959; Reference Levi1970, 42–8; Reference Levi1985, 82–3). Like that at the western temenos, the bothros of the central temenos was constructed within a former cistern which was out of use (for references see cat. nos 7 and 11). Modern interpretations of the central bothros initially associated it with cults of the Mother of the Gods, Aphrodite, and Demeter. However, a recent comprehensive analysis cast doubt upon the interpretation of terracottas as representations of Demeter or Persephone (this included the bust thymiateron whose cups were previously interpreted as Demeter's head-dress; see Khudiak Reference Khudiak and Yachmenev1940, 89–90; Shevchenko Reference Shevchenko, Posokhov and Sorochan2015b with literature analysed). In this paper, I focus upon a series of identical terracottas of the bust thymiaterion type depicting Aphrodite, some of which were found in the bothros (cat. nos 7, 10 and 13).

Discussion of this material coincides with ongoing research at the southern sacral area in Olbia dedicated to Aphrodite (Bujskikh Reference Bujskikh2015a). Its study commenced almost 20 years ago, but its interpretation as a sacral territory was proposed at a later point (A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva2005, 300; Krapivina Reference Krapivina, Petropoulos and Maslennikov2010; Buiskikh Reference Buiskikh2015b). A range of archaeological materials found there have been published recently (Buiskikh Reference Buiskikh2015b, with references; A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva2015). Terracotta images of Aphrodite and other deities are most commonly dated to the Hellenistic period (Khudiak Reference Khudiak and Yachmenev1940; A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva1992; Skudnova, Slavin and Kleiman Reference Skudnova, Slavin and Kleiman1970; Shevchenko Reference Shevchenko2016b). The series of busts discussed here derive from the late period of this temenos’ functioning, from the late third to the first half of the second century bc. Other Hellenistic materials from the area (also known as ‘area P-25’) also derive from a bothros (Krapivina Reference Krapivina2012, 239–40).

The evidence for Aphrodite's cult at Olbia derives from temene and private houses. A public cult of Aphrodite is attested in the Bosporan Kingdom and other Pontic cities (Kharko Reference Kharko1946; Ustinova Reference Ustinova1998, 29–35; Braund Reference Braund2018, 187–255). She was a patroness of colonisation, and there is epigraphical evidence for her epithet Ourania from Panticapaeum and Phanagoria. The existence of a cult of Aphrodite Nauarkhis in Gorgippia suggests an association with seafaring. Temples of Aphrodite without any epithets are epigraphically and archaeologically attested in Borysthenes and Tauric Chersonesos (see Shevchenko Reference Shevchenko2011, 147–8 with further references).

Aphrodite Ourania was associated by Herodotus (4.59) with the cult of a local deity worshipped by the Scythians occupying the lands next to Olbia and other cities of the north Black Sea littoral. However, this does not necessarily indicate that the cult had a significant place in Olbian religious life: Herodotus often designated local deities with Greek names in order to make it easier for his audience to understand the nature of non-Greek cults. Indeed, the epithet Ourania is not evidenced by a single Olbian inscription. Nor is she known in other cities of the north-western coast of the Black Sea (A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva2005, 300). Nevertheless, the images preserved on the thymiateria published here – of a mature lady, chastely dressed in chiton and himation, with Erotes on her shoulders – seem to correspond to the descriptions of Aphrodite Ourania outlined by some ancient authors (Plato, Symposion, 180d–e; Hesiod, Theogony, 176–206; Shevchenko Reference Shevchenko2011, 51–2). In the Bosporan Kingdom the epithet Ourania is well-attested and is sometimes related to depictions of Aphrodite with Erotes on her shoulders (Alekseeva Reference Alekseeva2014). The related epithet Apatouria may have been used in Olbia, where there was a month called Apatourion (A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva1992, 104). Furthermore, Aphrodite Demia, probably a private cult of love and fertility, is attested in fifth-century Olbia (A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva2015, 35–7). Two private dedications, one from Olbia and the other from Borysthenes, mentioning also Aphrodite Syria, are associated by scholars to the cult of Aphrodite Ourania in the area (A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva1992, 104; Reference Rusyaeva2015, 35 with references; Braund Reference Braund2018, 191 n. 18). However, as private dedications made by a single person, they amount to scant evidence for the nature of this cult or its public form.

Other epithets of Aphrodite are attested in the period of the thymiateria: during the third and second centuries bc she was worshipped in Olbia as Pontia and Euploia (IPE I 2, 168; A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva1992, 103–6; Reference Rusyaeva2005, 298, 309 with references) and Glykeia (Knipovich and Levi Reference Knipovich and Levi1968, nos 68, 69; A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva1992, 104). There was a temple and an altar dedicated to Aphrodite Glykeia erected in the third century bc (Knipovich and Levi Reference Knipovich and Levi1968, no. 69). The inscriptions offer no information on the physical details of the places of cult activity related to Aphrodite, and we can presume only that one of the pre-existing temene was used. No architectural remains uncovered by archaeological research have yet been related to this epigraphically evidenced temple, though there is an assumption that it may have been located in the southern temenos (A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva2015, 38). Alternatively, the bothros in the central temenos containing numerous images of Aphrodite may have been related to a proximate temple of Aphrodite.

During the second century bc, the Olbians also addressed Aphrodite as Euploia, the patroness of seafaring, as an inscription shows (IPE I 2, 168). Her statue was set up within the abaton at the western temenos (A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva1992, 105; Reference Rusyaeva2015, 36). Graffiti of the period from the sixth to the fourth centuries bc demonstrate that there was a sanctuary of Aphrodite together with Hermes in the same location (A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva1992, 102). The amount of graffiti on black-glazed pottery declined in the Hellenistic period. Consequently, the records of these deities’ cults could obtain other forms.

The worship of Aphrodite as Euploia and Pontia alongside Hermes may indicate a concern with seaborne trade at Olbia in the Hellenistic period. The cult of Aphrodite appears to have been worshipped on a polis level: her male priests were elected, as is indicated by an inscribed dedication (Knipovich and Levi Reference Knipovich and Levi1968, no. 68). Aphrodite was also worshipped as Pontia in Histria and Kyzikos (A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva1992, 105). Security of sea-trade routes in the Pontic region was highly valued: Eumelos, basileus of the Bosporus from 309 to 304 bc, subdued piratical activity in the area, which was one of the reasons for his glorification by Diodorus (20.25.2). Despite the public prominence of Aphrodite at Olbia in the Hellenistic period, she remained a goddess of private and family life and was never depicted on Olbian coins.

Terracotta representations of Aphrodite of the Hellenistic period depict her as a modest matron, not nude as a goddess of love was supposed to be, and with Erotes mounted upon her shoulders. The series of terracottas published here for the first time take this form. Such bust thymiateria are attested widely across the Greek world; however, those from the Black Sea region have received little attention. In Olbia, the busts have handmade cups added on top of their heads. We identify two distinct types marked out by their ways of depicting the Erotes and the style of levelling the area around the thymiaterion cup. The first type depicted Aphrodite with Erotes sitting on her shoulders; the second type depicted Aphrodite with stylised Erotes’ heads with a background of palmettes (first type: cat. nos 1–8; second type: cat. nos 9–13).

The identification of the thymiateria which are the subject of this article is made on the basis of the depiction of Erotes as well as the emphasis on jewellery, including earrings (cat. nos 2, 3 and 8) and a necklace in the second type of her image (cat. no. 13). Smaller fragments were attributed on the basis of the similarity of details and their size, as well as on traces of production technology which are equivalent across the whole series (see Appendix for the details). Similarities in structure, composition and the analysis of fragments from parts adjoining the back side and the lower and upper edges of the larger pieces also support the view of these terracottas as a single series. Other distinctive features include a distinctive hand (cat. nos 1–7), style of the lower edge (cat. nos 1 and 2), levelling of the surface around the cup's stem (cat. nos 2 and 3) and decoration with holes of the join between the front and back sides (cat. nos 2, 3 and 8). Traces suggest that a single mould was used for cat. nos 11 and 12. The image of a mature lady with emphasis on her children may well make reference to the cult of Aphrodite Ourania. But it is quite plausible that Aphrodite Pontia and Aphrodite Euploia, worshipped in Olbia at a polis level in this period, could be depicted in such a way.

THE THYMIATERIA

First Type

Most of the thymiateria-busts of the first type were found in the sacred areas. There is a single almost intact example from the whole series. It was found during the excavations in 1940 at Area И, which was occupied with dwelling houses (Fig. 2; field inv. no. О-40/455; inv. no. Ол-8217), by T.N. Knipovich (Reference Knipovich1940) and is now exhibited in the State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg. The rest of the terracottas are partially preserved. Most of them come from the excavations at the central temenos headed by E.I. Levi and A.N. Karasev (cat. nos 1–7) and are stored in the Scientific Repository of the Institute of Archaeology of the National Academy of Sciences, Ukraine (IA NASU). An upper part of another one with a hole from the thymiaterion cup (field inv. no. O-36/2936; inv. no. B3-1329) was found by the excavations in 1936 by M.M. Khudiak in the lower part of the city built up with private houses. It is kept in the National Museum of Ukrainian History (NMUH) and is not included into the Catalogue here. A one-sided terracotta with absolutely the same image and size was discovered in a bothros at the western temenos (cat. no. 8) during the excavations in 1974 by A.S. Rusyaeva (Reference Rusyaeva1979, 53, fig. 29:1). It never belonged to a bust thymiaterion, but it is very close to this series and was found in the same context with two thymiateria of the second type (cat. nos 11 and 12). Therefore it is listed in the Catalogue (no. 8).

Fig. 2.

Bust thymiaterion depicting Aphrodite. Excavations at the area И by T.N. Knipovich. Photo by I.I. Ilina. © The State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg, 2020.

One of busts of the first type was found in a stoa at the central temenos (cat. no. 1). Another was in the deepest bothros at the central temenos (cat. no. 7). The largest number of such were discovered at the area around sacral structures within the area of the central temenos (cat. nos 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). Consequently, all the thymiateria busts of the first type, except the two deriving from the area of dwelling houses (inv. nos O-40/4550 and O-36/2936), were found at the territory of public sanctuaries.

All examples of the first type appear to have been produced in Olbia, in a single workshop situated perhaps not far from the bothros at the area of central temenos (Levi Reference Levi1985, 83–4). They are similar in their appearance and technology of manufacture (cat. nos 1–7).

Fragments of only two of these images of Aphrodite (cat. nos 2 and 8) have previously been published (Levi Reference Levi1970, 45, table 19:4, no. 28; A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva1979, fig. 29:1). These publications failed to identify them as bust thymiateria (see Shevchenko Reference Shevchenko2015a). Therefore, the interpretation of such terracottas as thymiateria is new to the research of the North Pontic region (Bilde Reference Bilde2007; Shevchenko Reference Shevchenko2015a; Shevchenko Reference Shevchenko, Posokhov and Sorochan2015b) but is well known elsewhere.

ORIGIN AND ANALOGIES

These thymiateria-busts have sometimes been associated with the cult of Demeter (Khudiak Reference Khudiak and Yachmenev1940, 89–90), Hera (Cantone Reference Cantone2015, 95 with references) or the Mother of the Gods (e.g. cat. nos 11 and 12). As already noted, some are still incorrectly associated with Demeter on the grounds of the supposition that the cup upon her head is a headdress in the shape of a kalathos (for discussion, see Shevchenko Reference Shevchenko2015a). Nevertheless, there is no reason at all to interpret in this way images of a female with winged infants which undoubtedly indicate her attribution as Aphrodite. The image of Erotes on Aphrodite's shoulders has an extensive history that it is necessary to consider in assessing the wider context of the Olbian examples.

The depiction of Aphrodite with Erotes on her shoulders may derive from representations where she holds her twin children in her arms, an image known in black-figure vase painting (Carpenter Reference Carpenter1986, 125). Eros and Anteros, Aphrodite's sons, were often depicted in pairs as gods of love and requited love. The image of the latter differed in his wings’ shape: not a bird's wings as Eros has, but those of a butterfly. On the other hand, images of Eros and Himeros, love and desire, did not usually differ from each other. Therefore, they are designated simply as Erotes in discussion of them. Sometimes, Aphrodite appeared with just a single Eros on her shoulder (Pfrommer Reference Pfrommer2001, 2–3, fig. 3). An early protome from Olynthos, dated to the early fifth century bc (Robinson Reference Robinson1952, 85, no. 21, pls 15, 16), depicts Aphrodite with Erotes as small figurines on her arms; this is how they appear in Olbian terracottas. Protomai depicting Aphrodite with Erotes on her shoulders became popular in the wider Pontic region. In Olbia, apart from the bust thymiateria published here, several such fragments were found in the context of the bothros at the central temenos. Depictions of Aphrodite with Erotes on her shoulders are also known from vessels bearing reliefs (Canarache Reference Canarache1969, nos 11 and 52), and from metalwork (Alekseeva Reference Alekseeva2014) of the Hellenistic period. Indeed, the second type of thymiateria discussed here may have its origins in representations in metalwork of Erotes looking out over Aphrodite's shoulders while flying behind her (Alekseeva Reference Alekseeva2014, figs 5 and 6).

Separate bust thymiateria had appeared by the end of the fifth century bc in Halicarnassus (Higgins Reference Higgins1954, 128, no. 444, pl. 62; Romano Reference Romano1995, 17–18). Thymiateria with images of Aphrodite with Erotes on her shoulders are known also from the south of Italy (Schmidt Reference Schmidt1994, 238, no. 437, pl. 80abc). Having reached Tarentum, they influenced the iconography of Alexandria and the eastern Greek world in the period from the fourth to the second century bc (Bedello Tata Reference Bedello Tata1990, 4, 39). Over the course of several centuries and under the influence of local coroplastic schools, bust thymiateria developed peculiarities. Olbian examples evidence this supposition (see especially cat. nos 1–7; Shevchenko Reference Shevchenko2015a; Reference Shevchenko2018). The comparandum that resembles most closely the Olbian busts is the thymiaterion found in Italy (Schmidt Reference Schmidt1994, 238, no. 437). Its thymiaterion cup is mould-made, unlike those of the Olbian examples, and is not well centred on the head; the edges of the cup are flattened, even folded. Aphrodite's arms hang down along her body and are represented as low as her elbows. Small Erotes placed on her shoulders stretch out their arms to her face. This bust is also close to the Olbian ones in terms of its size (cat. no. 2). Moreover, her clothes are arranged similarly to those Olbian bust thymiateria, which lack attributes except jewellery made of separate pieces of clay (Shevchenko Reference Shevchenko2018). Similar also is the sleeveless V-shape chiton which encircles the neck and is tied up beneath the breasts, a style often used in large-scale sculpture showing quite relaxed images (Thompson Reference Thompson1963, 23, 80).

Italian Hellenistic coroplastics appear to influence the depiction of Aphrodite in the thymiateria: a round pendant relief of the first half of the fourth century bc depicts Aphrodite with Erotes standing on her shoulders (Eberhard Reference Eberhard1959, cat. no. 9); similar also is a bust with an Eros preserved sitting on the goddess’ shoulder (Winter Reference Winter1903, 253, no. 3). On both examples, Erotes appear as slim youths with their wings raised. Aphrodite wears earrings consisting of a round upper part and a pointed pendant, which closely resemble those on the Olbian thymiateria (cat. nos 4, 7 and 10–12). She wears the sleeveless chiton, and her hair is tied on the top of her head in a way that resembles the three projections around the hole on the head of a large semi-figure from Olbia (A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva1979, fig. 32; Shevchenko Reference Shevchenko2018, figs 7–9). Another terracotta Aphrodite with Erotes has the same hairstyle and chiton similarly arranged on her shoulders (cat. nos 10 and 13). She is presented in the background of her himation (Leyenaar-Plaisier Reference Leyenaar-Plaisier1979, 411, pl. 147, no. 1141). These traits may be the consequence of the dissemination of a style across the Greek world but also reflect traditions concerning Aphrodite that circulated in myth and beliefs about her.

An Italian terracotta depiction of Aphrodite with Erotes in the Greece and Rome Department of the British Museum (Higgins Reference Higgins1954, no. 1228) seems to be something in between a protome and a half-figure. This terracotta has a back side separately made, but very closely added to the facial side, so the figurine is flat and could hardly be placed on a horizontal surface. The face side is in low relief and the flat back is joined together, leaving just a narrow space inside. The bust is dated to 420 bc and is said to be from Locri. The left leg of each of the Erotes is standing on the shoulder of Aphrodite, while the right one is hanging. Their heads are turned towards the goddess. Their wings and facial features are invisible. Their heads look like globular projections, which could be the deliberate result of the moulding: their faces could hardly have been eroded during the terracotta's usage, as the image of the Aphrodite is untouched and looks carefully worked out. There is also a possibility that the details of their faces were highlighted with paint.

This kind of schematism of the Erotes’ depiction contrasted with Aphrodite's image points to a parallel with the Olbian bust thymiateria with stylised Erotes with palmettes on her shoulders (cat. nos 9–13). Their faces do not reveal any features, but other details of the image are clearly seen (cat. nos 9 and 10). Moreover, the presentation of Aphrodite on the Italian terracotta in a flat and wide polos resembles the headdress of the Olbian examples (cat. nos 9, 11 and 12).

LOCAL ASPECTS OF THE IMAGE

In terms of the representation of the face of Aphrodite, the Olbian image of the first variant is unique (see cat. nos 2, 3, 4, 5 and 8). It finds parallels only within Olbia in the shape of two half-figures produced in a single mould and found near the agora (Fig. 3; Shevchenko Reference Shevchenko2016a, 44–5, figs 1 and 2, with references). The handmade ivy wreaths which they wear appear to make reference to Dionysus’ cult. The pomposity and maturity of this woman's face, including round cheeks, heavy chin and thick neck, led to a previous identification of the wreathed figures as Demeter (A.S. Rusyaeva Reference Rusyaeva1979, 51). However, it is now recognised that appearance and emotions do not necessarily make reference to a particular cult: Aphrodite, shown young and tender by one artist, looks almost stout in works of another, for instance in the series of busts currently discussed (best preserved on cat. nos 2 and 8).

Fig. 3.

Semi-figures with handmade wreaths from the area near the agora. Excavations by L.M. Slavin. IA NASU.

Aphrodite on bust thymiateria appears as a smiling full-faced woman, with heavy eyelids, round protruding cheeks and chin, thick neck, slightly open mouth and a more expressed upper lip (clearly seen on Fig. 2, for instance). The emotionally expressive faces depicted upon the series of terracottas discussed here are not known anywhere else. They may have been based on a life-size portrait statue of Aphrodite.

The bust thymiateria of Aphrodite discussed here are contemporary with half-figures found in a dwelling area near the agora by the excavations headed by L.M. Slavin (Fig. 3). The resemblance of their faces suggests the hand of a single coroplast or his workshop. These half-figures were made in a mould and adorned with handmade details including leaves and globular fruits to create a wreath traditional for the cult of Dionysus. Such details helped to produce the depiction of participants in the thiasos of Dionysus. Moreover, females with Dionysiac wreaths and corymbs were also shown in Olbia in a shape of bust thymiateria. At least ten serially produced terracottas of this type were found in different parts of Olbia (Shevchenko Reference Shevchenko2020).

FUNCTIONS

Both types of Aphrodite's busts studied here were crowned with thymiateria cups. Most of them are broken away now. Only their stems are preserved on some of the terracottas (cat. no. 12). Otherwise, we can just find a hole from these functional parts (cat. nos 2, 3, 9 and 11). There are more than 30 cups and their fragments from bust thymiateria found in the bothros at the central temenos. They are similar to the one wholly preserved on a find from a private house (Fig. 2). These cups could have belonged to other types of thymiateria found in this context, not necessarily those depicting Aphrodite; accordingly they are not published here. The fragments published here bear holes which would have supported the thymiateria cups (cat. nos 2, 3, 11 and 12). All of them were made if not by a single coroplast, then by a single workshop at the same period of time. The cup on bust thymiateria from Italy was usually mould-made and took the shape of a flower. This was the reason to designate such terracottas as ‘flower women’ (Cantone Reference Cantone2015). However, Olbian cups, with a single exception (the earliest bust: Khudiak Reference Khudiak and Yachmenev1940, 89, no. 6, fig. 66; Shevchenko Reference Shevchenko2020, 51, fig. 3), are simple and handmade. They lack depictions or reliefs in the shape of petals.

Among the thymiateria cups detached from their busts and found in the bothroi at Olbia, only several contained traces of burning. Italian scholars have concluded that such terracottas were used for burning incense, but this is not applicable to all examples (Cantone Reference Cantone2015, 108). While the traces of soot are recorded most often on busts from Paestum, none of such items from Capua were used for burning (Bedello Tata Reference Bedello Tata1990, 38). Bust thymiateria could have been used, not for burning incense, but for its diffusing: accordingly, the essential oil could be poured into the open cup of the thymiaterion for long-term diffusion (see further Shevchenko Reference Shevchenko, Posokhov and Sorochan2015b). The interpretation of such terracottas as ritual devices used in various contexts (sanctuary, house, burial) with various meanings (cults of different gods) (Cantone Reference Cantone2015, 108–9) is valid for the Pontic region and the wider Greek world. These functions distinguish them from most terracottas, whose cultic function is usually demonstrated by other finds from their context.