Focusing on empirical second language (L2) studies from the past 20 years, this highly informative and well-researched volume offers a detailed examination of the findings on learning outcomes and educational achievements of prekindergarten through grade 12 English language learners (ELLs) in the United States.
In chapter 1, Christian introduces the methodology and organization of this volume, which limits its scope to scientific studies relevant to oral language, literacy, and academic achievement. Although recognizing that English language proficiency is not the only factor influencing academic success, the author underscores the point that an understanding of L2 learning outcomes is necessary to provide an effective education that meets the situated needs of limited English proficient (LEP) and non-English proficient students.
In chapter 2, “Oral Language,” Saunders and O'Brien examine research on language learning strategies, individual factors, L2 use, and assessment. Arguing that oral proficiency in English is essential for academic achievement, successful social interactions, and future employment opportunities, the authors point out the lack of studies that systematically investigate academic literacy and the oral mode. Although the stated focus of this volume is on classroom and school contexts, this chapter also considers nonschool factors, including the complex relationship between first language (L1) maintenance and L2 development.
Riches and Genesee, in chapter 3, “Literacy: Crosslinguistic and Crossmodal Issues,” look at the findings on L1-L2 interaction and the development of oral and written skills and abilities. Significant is their conclusion that L1 literacy skills aid in the development of L2 literacy skills, supporting the notion of a “common underlying reservoir of literacy abilities” (p. 77). However, although some studies indicate L1 oral proficiency can facilitate the development of L2 literacy, it is not yet well understood which specific oral components might be more relevant than others.
In chapter 4, “Literacy: Instructional Issues,” Genesee and Riches confine their discussion to the impact of instructional approaches, language of instruction, family and community, and assessment. As the authors point out, the majority of this research has focused on the development of reading skills for elementary school-age learners, with little attention given to the effects of direct instruction on writing. Among their findings, the authors suggest that interactive approaches offer many benefits, especially for at-risk learners. Particularly striking is the dearth of empirical research on the influence of community-related factors in literacy development. Additionally, while arguing that “to be effective, education must be based on an accurate assessment of students' knowledge and skills” (p. 137), the authors call attention to the lack of systematic, reliable, and generalizable research that examines assessment of learner knowledge and skills.
In chapter 5, “Academic Achievement,” Lindholm-Leary and Borsato examine factors that influence the educational outcomes for ELLs and suggest “the educational success of ELLs is positively related to sustained instruction through the student's first language” (p. 201). Additionally, for ELLs, nonmainstream programs designed to promote bilingualism and biliteracy are shown to support academic achievement in English. In keeping with previous chapters, the authors discuss the problem of generalizability of findings due to poorly defined research criteria and a shortage of long-term studies.
Genesee, Lindholm-Leary, Saunders, and Christian summarize the findings of this volume in chapter 6, “Conclusions and Future Directions,” citing the positive influence of L1 skills, direct instruction, and strategic and focused intervention on the development of L2 academic literacy. Perhaps just as important as the synthesis of empirical L2 studies is their discussion of the critical need for more systematic longitudinal research that includes a focus on middle school and higher grades, classrooms, community influences, non-Hispanic populations, and late-entrance learners.
Supplemented by detailed summary tables of the studies reviewed, this volume offers a clear and accessible overview for SLA researchers and scholars, teacher trainers, and novice and veteran teachers alike. Although not all readers might agree with a skills-based definition of literacy, the authors are careful to avoid positioning learners as deficient, recognizing that “ELL students come to U.S. schools with many resources” (p. 2), “strategies for comprehending” (p. 109), and a variety of L1 and L2 literacy skills and practices. In light of No Child Left Behind legislation, high-stakes testing, funding cutbacks, and the recent push for immigration reform, this volume is essential and timely for those interested in how to inform theories and practices to best serve growing ELL populations.
