Introduction

Continuously measuring inclinometers embedded in glacier ice allow us to monitor the tilt and azimuth angles of the axis of the instrument with high temporal resolution (Reference Gudmundsson, Bauder, Lüthi, Fischer and FunkGudmundsson and others, 1999; Reference Pfeffer, Humphrey, Amadei, Harper and WegmannPfeffer and others, 2000; Reference Marshall, Harper, Pfeffer and HumphreyMarshall and others, 2002; Reference Amundson, Truffer and LüthiAmundson and others, 2006). The instruments constitute a solid body of given geometry floating in a comparably soft viscous fluid. Due to the different properties of the probe and the fluid, the local strain field is perturbed by the probe. It is thus not obvious how the local strain rates in the ice are reflected in the rotation axis and rate of the instrument.

An inclinometer that is fully equipped for, for example, two-axis gravity sensors and three-axis magnetometers is in principle suited to measure the absolute orientation of a rigid tripod attached to the instrument with respect to a given coordinate system (Fig. 1). Thus, we can monitor the rotation in space (e.g. through the changes in the tilt or zenith angle and the azimuth of the long axis of the inclinometer, and the rotation angle about this axis).

Fig. 1.

Geometrical set-up of an inclinometer. The orientation in space of the tripod of vectors e ₁, e ₂ and e ₃ fixed to the instrument is given with respect to a coordinate system x ₁, x ₂ and x ₃. The angles θ and ϕ are the zenith and azimuth angles of the long axis, and γ is the rotation angle about this axis.

The spatial rotation of the probe is a result of the geometry of the instrument and of the deformation field of the ice. The forward problem is the computation of the rotation vector of the instrument for a given deformation field, either the strain rate or velocity gradient components, which is given by a Stokes problem for given boundary conditions. The inverse problem requires the determination of the deformation field from given rotation vectors of the instrument, which is not straightforward.

It seems reasonable to assume that a spherical body reflects the local rigid rotation of the ice motion. A very thin linear probe is assumed to behave like a Lagrangian unit vector (Reference Keller and BlatterKeller and Blatter, 2012), a vector rigidly attached to an infinitesimal piece of the ice and moving with this ice. In this paper, we examine the validity of the latter assumption, which we call the unit vector model. To this purpose, we compare numerical model results of an extremely viscous rectangular body, representing a solid, floating in a deforming fluid, to the unit vector model.

We restrict our analysis to two dimensions defined by the local horizontal flow direction, x ₁, and the direction opposite to gravity, x ₃. Only normal strain and pure horizontal shear are assumed, as in Reference Keller and BlatterKeller and Blatter (2012). The probe is assumed to be small enough such that macroscopic inhomogeneities (e.g. in the fields of temperature and strain rate) are not significant, and large enough that microscopic inhomogeneities (e.g. ice crystals) do not play a role. The coupling of the instruments to the ice seems to be difficult in temperate ice (Reference Pfeffer, Humphrey, Amadei, Harper and WegmannPfeffer and others, 2000; Reference Keller and BlatterKeller and Blatter, 2012). Therefore, we consider only the well-defined cold case with no slip on the surface of the probe. Furthermore, buoyancy is neglected.

Unit Vector Model

The rectangular inclinometer always starts from a position with a vertical long axis, i.e. with a zenith angle θ ₀ = 0. With this assumption, equations (15) and (16) of Reference Keller and BlatterKeller and Blatter (2012) reduce to

where θ(t) is the zenith angle of the instrument axis as a function of time and L ₁₃ and L ₃₃ are components of the velocity gradient tensor, L_ij = ∂u_i/∂x_j . The time derivative of Eqn (1) at t = 0 yields

Thus, at the starting point with θ(0) = 0, the influence of L ₃₃ vanishes and the rotation rate of the unit vector, Eqn (2), reflects only the rotation part of the velocity field. For t → ∞ the angle θ approaches a limit angle

with L ₃₃ t > 0; for L ₃₃ t < 0, the limit angle is π/2. The limit angles are determined by the directions of the principal strain-rate components.

Numerical Model

The model solves a Stokes problem for a square domain including a rectangular or circular domain representing the solid floating in the fluid (Fig. 2). On the boundary between the solid and fluid bodies, continuity of the velocity and stress fields is imposed. The viscosity of the solid is chosen seven orders of magnitude larger than that of the fluid representing the ice. The conditions on the boundary of the square are chosen as

such that the field of strain rate within the domain is homogeneous with given values for L ₁₃ and L ₃₃ and the drifting velocity in the center of the domain vanishes, if the solid body is not included. The square domain Ω₂ is centered at the origin. For reasons of symmetry, the rectangular probe rotates about the origin and is always started from an upright position, θ ₀ = 0.

Fig. 2.

Computation domain with the two fluid domains Ω₁(t) and Ω₂(t) and the level set function φ(x, t). θ(t) is the zenith angle of the long axis of the inclinometer.

We consider Ω ⊂ R ², a square domain filled with two Newtonian or Glen-type non-Newtonian immiscible and incompressible fluids. At time t, the two fluids occupy the domains Ω₁(t) and Ω₂(t) (Fig. 2) which are defined by a continuous level set function φ,

Given the fluid velocity u, the level set function φ must satisfy the advection equation

so the contour line φ = 0 (level set) always follows the boundary between Ω₁(t) and Ω₂(t).

Neglecting inertial terms, the mass and momentum conservation equations are

where p is the pressure, g is the acceleration of gravity and the superscript ^T denotes the transpose of the velocity gradient tensor Δu. The density ρ and the viscosity η are defined by

where ρ_i and η_i are the densities and viscosities in the corresponding domains Ω _i . Note that Eqns (7) and (8) are understood in the weak sense, thus assuming the continuity of forces and velocity at the interface between the two fluids. To approximate the rigid body motion, Δu + Δu ^T = 0 in Ω₁, we can set η ₁ to a very large value.

Let Δt be the time-step, for each i > 0: given φ_i , an approximation of φ(t_i ), we compute ρ_i and η_i using Eqn (9) and search u_{i +1}, p_{i +1} at time t_{i +1} = t_i + Δt such that

The Stokes problem is solved using finite elements with linear polynomials to approximate the pressure, and quadratic polynomials to approximate the velocity. Given a velocity u_{i +1,} the new level set ϕ_{i +1} is computed by solving Eqn (6) between t_i and t_{i +1} with the so-called method of characteristics (see, e.g., Reference PironneauPironneau, 1989). The model is implemented using the FreeFem++ software for solving partial differential equations (http://www.freefem.org/). Extensive tests of the accuracy and convergence of the model are presented in Reference JaberJaber (2012).

Numerical Experiments

Equation (1) can be considered to be a function of two dimensionless variables, L ₁₃ /L ₃₃ and dimensionless time t L ₃₃. To generate the flow field in the interior of the domain, correspondingly, a dimensionless Stokes equation is solved. Only the ratios between the strain-rate components, and thus also between the stress components, are relevant. Consequently, the choice of the dimensionless constant viscosity is also free. In the presented results we chose the viscosity of the fluid η = 10 and the viscosity of the solid probe η ₁ = 10⁸, which makes its deformation rate small enough to make the probe almost rigid for the time-span of the model experiments. In all experiments, the model domain is a square with a side length 2, the structured mesh size is 0.01 and the time-step is Δt = 0.0028.

Conclusions and Discussion

The assumption that an inclinometer probe embedded in glacier ice behaves like a Lagrangian unit vector (Reference Keller and BlatterKeller and Blatter, 2012) is tested with a Stokes model of the motion of a rectangular solid (very viscous) body floating in a fluid, with both Newtonian and Glen-type rheology. The assumption turned out to be viable only for Newtonian fluids and if the length-to-width ratio of the probe exceeds ∼4. At the start of the rotation with an upright long axis, the rotation rate is slightly smaller for smaller aspect ratios of the rectangle but approaches the rotation rate of the unit vector solution for large enough aspect ratios. The limit angle decreases with increasing aspect ratio and also approaches the limit angle of the unit vector solution for large enough aspect ratios. For smaller aspect ratios, the shear strain L ₁₃ is overestimated at the start with θ = 0, and the ratio L ₁₃/L ₃₃ from the limit angle is underestimated with the unit vector solution (Fig. 3). A modified Glen-type fluid yields smaller rotation rates compared to the Newtonian fluid and a smaller limit angle. Thus, the unit vector solution consistently overestimates L ₁₃ and L ₁₃/L ₃₃.

We cannot exclude a significant influence on the rotation rate due to the three-dimensional shape of the probe and the attached cable, especially if the probe is shorter than the recommended four times the width. To avoid such complication it may be advisable to use a freely floating wireless probe as developed recently (Reference Hart, Martinez, Ong, Riddoch, Rose and PadhyHart and others, 2006; Reference SmeetsSmeets and others, 2012). An embedded inclinometer thus is not a trivial instrument for the measurement of strain rates in glaciers. This was demonstrated for the application of the unit vector model in Reference Keller and BlatterKeller and Blatter (2012) and is demonstrated in the experiments presented here, and may be even more critical if the strain field is truly three-dimensional. This may require additional numerical modeling not only of the behavior of a given inclinometer in the local strain field, but also a modeling of the larger-scale strain field in the glacier to plan field experiments and to constrain the interpretation of the inclinometer readings.