Several works on the Severans have been published in recent years and S.'s study of the imperial court during this period provides a welcome addition. Unfortunately S. was only able to incorporate some of the work published after 2010 within his book, which derives from his 2012 doctoral thesis. S. seeks to uncover whether the environment of the emperors (the imperial court and imperial residences) changed in the Severan era – did the Severan dynasty see a break from the Antonine period, and can we trace the beginnings of the late-antique comitatus? S. gathers together an impressive array of material and previous scholarship on the subject, ultimately concluding that the Severan period saw more continuity than change (p. 359). The research question inevitably raises questions about the nature of the source evidence: how can we identify the composition of the imperial court and its possible influence from the narratives of Dio, Herodian and (for the reigns of Elagabalus and Severus Alexander) the Historia Augusta? S. acknowledges the problematic nature of the source evidence, but his work ultimately relies on the accounts of these three authors, meaning that his discussion is more convincing in some places than others.
S. begins with an introduction and a detailed overview of previous research. He then moves on to a discussion of salutationes and convivia, which S. identifies as two central moments of interaction between senators and the emperor. None of the sources attests to regular salutationes under Septimius Severus; S. acknowledges that perhaps authors did not think to mention what was essentially an everyday occurrence, but none the less concludes that it is likely Severus held these less frequently (p. 345). Dio's discussion of the ceremony in Nicomedia under Caracalla (78.17.3–4) is employed to suggest that salutationes could change while the emperor was outside Rome; that this section of Dio appears as part of a broader diatribe against the emperor preserved in epitome is not discussed in detail. S. also discusses the surviving epigraphic protocols from Caracalla's rule as evidence of changes to the ceremony, concluding that senators who did not accompany the emperor as comites were placed alongside the equestrians during salutationes in the provinces (p. 48). The discussion for Elagabalus and Severus Alexander largely relies on the Historia Augusta; S. displays a sensitivity to the problematic nature of this source at some points (e.g. p. 50), while for other sections (e.g. Verconius Turinus under Severus Alexander, SHA, Alex. 35.5–36.3) S. argues the tales may have developed from a kernel of historical reality (p. 53). A summary of the discussion is provided at the end of each chapter.
Chapter 4 focuses on the friends of the emperor. S. argues that there were different kinds of imperial amici in the Severan period, and draws upon the work of Winterling (Aula Caesaris [1999]) to distinguish between those who had an ‘institutionalised’ friendship with the emperor (created through court ceremonials like the convivia) and personal close friends who were mainly non-aristocratic (p. 94). Epigraphic evidence is used to trace the careers of individuals in this period (e.g. Pollienus Auspex, Gaius Iulius Asper), but whether career advancement meant individuals were considered amici is not as clear, a result of the nature of the sources. In his discussion of personal friends of the emperors (e.g. Theocritus under Caracalla), S. makes the interesting point that when Caracalla set off for his Parthian campaign he allegedly only had one senator accompany him, an important context for understanding Macrinus' rise to power (p. 133). S. details the homosexual lovers of Elagabalus as reported in the literary evidence, but questions whether these lovers actually held positions within the inner circle of advisors (pp. 161–2). The poor epigraphic and textual evidence for Severus Alexander's reign means that S.'s discussion of the last Severan emperor is brief.
S. then turns to the imperial women. This is a large topic for one book chapter; those who desire an in-depth analysis are better served by the monographs dedicated to the topic. S. argues that the accounts of the conflict between Plautianus and Julia Domna suggest that Domna was trying to influence Severus in some way (thus bringing her into conflict with the praetorian prefect) (p. 187). The role of imperial women at court becomes increasingly difficult to identify with the reigns of Elagabalus and Severus Alexander; S. concludes that epigraphic evidence suggests they had a similar role to the imperial women of previous eras although Mamaea may have had more power over Severus Alexander since it appears that those who normally advised the emperor were kept at a distance (p. 199).
In his discussion of the physical architecture of the court (the palaces, villas, gardens and other residences associated with the emperor as he travelled) S. provides a summary of archaeological work to date. The experience of the Severan palace complexes (e.g. doorways, entrances, exits) and other venues of interaction with the emperor (e.g. amphitheatres, halls, circuses) are explored. S. concludes that the use of the palace on the Palatine changed over time, with the same space being used in different ways by different emperors (p. 236). S. notes that with the construction of a palace in the Roman suburbs in this period, communication between the emperor and his subjects would have spread throughout the city, marking a break with earlier tradition. The development of the Horti Lamiani under Severus Alexander is seen by S. as part of the controlled access to the young emperor during his reign.
In the sixth chapter S. explores the development of traditional titles and honours. S. focuses on the rise of the equestrian class, and the bestowal of senatorial rank and ornamenta consularia on those of equestrian birth. S. argues that the change in epigraphic habit in this period, resulting in the detailed listing of all honours granted to an individual, as well as the increased emphasis on honours for women, speak to the need in the Severan era to distinguish oneself as a senator in contrast to an equestrian with senatorial rank (p. 305). S.'s work should be read alongside Davenport's discussion of the increasing grants of equestrian status to those of low rank within the Roman army (C. Davenport, PBSR 80 [2012], 89–123). The chapter concludes with a discussion of the consilium, imperial secretaries, the women, freedman and slaves of the imperial household, with S. observing that there was friction between the official civic sphere and the imperial household (p. 342).
S. concludes that the Severans do not represent a new model of imperial court, but that the period did see some changes to the types of interactions that took place between the emperor and his subjects (p. 350). The fact that few senators accompanied the emperor on his travels, in conjunction with the amount of time spent outside Rome by Septimius Severus and Caracalla, saw a decrease in the possible influence senators could have over the princeps. But the changes that led to the court of Late Antiquity must be sought in a later period (p. 359).
S.'s book is ambitious in scope and provides a detailed overview of the Severan imperial court and its sources. Readers are aided by an index of people and an index of passages cited, although there is no general index. S. presents a discussion of the various facets that comprised the imperial court, but, as perhaps with any exploration of what may have gone on ‘behind the scenes’, the nature of the source evidence leaves us questioning who exactly wielded influence, and whether literary accounts represent ancient reality.
