Edward Watts's new book is an original and thought-provoking narrative of the history of the fourth century a.d. The Final Pagan Generation follows the momentous historical changes that redefined the Roman Empire between the ascension of Constantine and the reign of Theodosius I, focusing on one specific generation, from birth to old age and death. W. analyses the history of the period while taking into account the impact of its wider developments on ‘real people’, and how these individuals reacted to them. The ‘final pagan generation’ was born at the beginning of the fourth century; it was the last generation of Romans to grow up believing that the pagan religious order inherited from their parents would continue to exist indefinitely. As it turns out, they were hopelessly wrong, and this book follows the lives of four members of the imperial élite (Ausonius and Praetextatus in the West; Themistius and Libanius in the East) as they reached adulthood and then slowly withdrew from public life.

The book contains an introduction and ten chapters, organized in chronological order. Each chapter is divided in two parts, the first one discussing a specific aspect of imperial history and the second focusing on the chosen individuals, considering how they responded to the general topic discussed in the chapter. The first two chapters are dedicated respectively to religious life and the rôle of education in the early fourth century, focusing on the childhood and youth of the final pagan generation. Fourth-century Romans inherited a rich religious infrastructure of temples, rituals and priesthoods, which had become part of people's unquestioned assumptions. We are better informed about the youth of these men than about their childhood: the traditional and conservative character of Roman education equipped them to run the empire, while blinding them to some of the religious and political changes that marked the period.

Chs 3–6 discuss the late Roman state and its troubled history from Constantius II to Valentinian I. Élite Romans grew accustomed to seeing the imperial government as a necessary part of life, and tied their careers and ambitions to it. Libanius mobilized an expanding network of contacts in government as a way of securing favours for his students and friends, while Themistius turned an imperial visit to Ankara into an opportunity to rise from local teacher to imperial propagandist. The usurpation of Julian and his subsequent replacement with the Pannonian régime of Valentinian I had a direct impact on the fortunes of this generation, as the divergent careers of Libanius, Themistius and Praetextatus show.

By the time the final pagan generation reached old age a new generation was ready to replace it. Chs 7 and 8 trace the development of a generational conflict between older men educated in what was still a pagan empire and the assertive Christianized leadership of the later fourth century — their children. The reign of Gratian represented an opportunity for Ausonius to install his circle in positions of power, but it also brought a younger group of politicians to the fore, and Theodosius' reign did the same for the East. Although men like Praetextatus and Themistius still wielded considerable influence, they had to co-operate with a very different group of politicians. As they withdrew from the political limelight in the 380s, men of their generation had to deal with Roman notions of old age and the limits imposed on them. As W. discusses in ch. 9, Themistius was still influential in Constantinople, but his position was now questioned by younger politicians who thought his time had passed. Libanius, however, although reinforcing many of the stereotypes about his physical fragility and social isolation as an old man, was able to use these clichés as a way of advancing his own interests and those of his friends. Members of the final pagan generation preserved aspects of the more tolerant and politically diverse empire of their youth for as long as they lived. Later generations would still turn to these men as models of their age, incorporating them into their view of a past that was not only distant, but also different (as argued in ch. 10).

By focusing on four individuals whose lives are relatively well documented, W. is able to explore in some detail the impact of imperial and religious history on the lives of members of the imperial élite. Some individuals are more effectively discussed than others: none of Libanius' contemporaries rival his written output, and some of the best pages of the book are dedicated to him. Fourth-century Romans did not discuss economic issues in detail, and I wonder how the financial measures discussed by W. in ch. 6 would have affected the patrimony of someone like Praetextatus, a man who must have been obscenely rich, but about whose economic interests we know remarkably little (but W. could have explored the case of Libanius in more detail in this respect). The book's focus on the imperial élite could have represented a serious limit to W.'s analysis, but the benefits of his approach far outweigh the risks. W. has many interesting new things to say about almost every topic he discusses. His greatest contribution, however, is the weaving together of different strands of imperial history, illuminating their impact on the life of actual people, whose feelings, expectations and ambitions acquire a concrete dimension that is rarely seen in traditional narratives of this period.