Introduction
Foster care stands out as the preferred out-of-home placement for children and young people at risk who were removed from their families as it provides a stable alternative family context (Font & Gershoff, Reference Font and Gershoff2020; Saarnik, Reference Saarnik2021). Children in foster care may face various challenges, including experiences of abuse or neglect, before entering the foster care system (Jiménez-Morago et al., Reference Jiménez-Morago, León and Román2015; Oswald et al., Reference Oswald, Heil and Goldbeck2010). They may also experience trauma associated with separation from their biological families (Mitchell & Kuczynski, Reference Mitchell and Kuczynski2010) and placement instability (Unrau et al., Reference Unrau, Seita and Putney2008). However, research has shown that foster care placements can also have a protective effect. Specifically, benefits have been reported in terms of the quality of attachment with significant others (e.g., Kothari et al., Reference Kothari, Blakeslee and Miller2020; Smyke et al., Reference Smyke, Zeanah, Fox, Nelson and Guthrie2010; West et al., Reference West, Vanderfaeillie, Van Hove, Gypen and Van Holen2020) and the adaptive functioning of children and young people in terms of academic performance, happiness, and behavioral results (Fernandez, Reference Fernandez2008).
Despite these benefits of foster care, recruiting new foster families is a global challenge (Anjos et al., Reference Anjos, Magalhães, Graça, Pinto, Baptista and Pinheiro2023; Davi et al., Reference Davi, Jones and Gillen2021), as there are more children in need than families available to foster them (Davi et al., Reference Davi, Jones and Gillen2021). Developing and evaluating communication and recruitment campaigns to recruit foster families has therefore been identified as a need to improve the care system (Berrick et al., Reference Berrick, Shauffer and Rodriguez2011; Diogo & Branco, Reference Diogo and Branco2017; Magalhães et al., Reference Magalhães, Costa, Pinto, Graça, Baptista, Ferreira, Castro, Anjos and Gouveia2022).
Message Development and Evaluation
Previous work has identified a variety of communication channels and vehicles to promote foster care. Preferred channels and vehicles include newspapers, radio, cinema, television, advertisements on public transport and public roads, and informative pamphlets (López et al., Reference López, Del Valle and Bravo2010). Given the increasing significance of social media as a marketing and communication platform (Chiang et al., Reference Chiang, Wong and Huang2019), it has also been suggested that these platforms could be used to promote foster care (e.g., with testimonials from foster families) (López et al., Reference López, Del Valle and Bravo2010). Interpersonal communication (e.g., word of mouth) has also been identified as an important strategy (López et al., Reference López, Del Valle and Bravo2010), providing an opportunity to establish direct contact with foster families, clarify doubts, and access information that is perceived as authentic (Canali et al., Reference Canali, Maurizio and Vecchiato2016; Cox et al., Reference Cox, Orme and Rhodes2003; López et al., Reference López, Del Valle and Bravo2010; Sebba, Reference Sebba2012). Despite this evidence, no study has yet been guided by an explicit approach to the development and evaluation of messages promoting foster care.
Developing and evaluating messages and campaigns requires identifying factors that are associated with target behavior (Lewis et al., Reference Lewis, Watson and White2016; Zhao, Reference Zhao2020), so that these factors can be reflected in message content. According to broad scope models of attitudes and behaviors (e.g., health action process approach [HAPA] model; Schwarzer, Reference Schwarzer2008) the adoption of a new behavior is influenced by motivational and volitional factors, which are important for forming and implementing intentions, respectively (Schwarzer, Reference Schwarzer2008). The decision to become a foster family derives from a set of motivational variables (Diogo & Branco, Reference Diogo and Branco2017; Migliorini et al., Reference Migliorini, Rania, Cardinali, Guiducci and Cavanna2018; Rodger et al., Reference Rodger, Cummings and Leschied2006). The motivations considered most important for fostering are child centered (the desire to help a child; Delgado, Reference Delgado2023; De Maeyer et al., Reference De Maeyer, Vanderfaeillie, Vanschoonlandt, Robberechts and Van Holen2014; Diogo & Branco, Reference Diogo and Branco2017; Gouveia et al., Reference Gouveia, Magalhães and Pinto2021; López López & Del Valle, Reference López and Del Valle2016), but family-centered motivations have also been reported (e.g., knowing a foster child or a foster child’s family and wanting to help; Magalhães et al., Reference Magalhães, Costa, Pinto, Graça, Baptista, Ferreira, Castro, Anjos and Gouveia2022) as well as society-oriented motivations, including the desire to contribute to society (De Maeyer et al., Reference De Maeyer, Vanderfaeillie, Vanschoonlandt, Robberechts and Van Holen2014).
Two key factors in the motivational phase of behavioral change are outcome expectancies and action self-efficacy. It is important for individuals to consider the pros and cons of the new behavior (i.e., outcome expectancies, such as expecting positive development outcomes for fostered children) but also to feel confident in their ability to perform the behavior (i.e., action self-efficacy). This may be especially important for behaviors with multiple responsibilities, such as becoming a foster family (e.g., spending time with the child, collaborating with professionals, organizing visits, ensuring the child’s contact with the biological family; Berrick & Skivenes, Reference Berrick and Skivenes2012; López & Del Valle, Reference López and Del Valle2016; Van Holen et al., Reference Van Holen, Geys, West, Gypen and Vanderfaeillie2019). Moving from the motivational phase to the volitional phase, where intentions are put into action, usually requires developing an action plan. Action planning involves identifying the necessary steps and resources to turn intentions into behavior (Schwarzer & Hamilton, Reference Schwarzer, Hamilton, Hagger, Cameron, Hamilton, Hankonen and Lintunen2020). It is considered a task-facilitation strategy, as it helps guide behavioral performance (Schwarzer & Hamilton, Reference Schwarzer, Hamilton, Hagger, Cameron, Hamilton, Hankonen and Lintunen2020). Along with factors that influence intention formation and implementation, the adoption and maintenance of a behavior can also be negatively affected by contextual constraints (Schwarzer & Hamilton, Reference Schwarzer, Hamilton, Hagger, Cameron, Hamilton, Hankonen and Lintunen2020).
Obstacles to becoming a foster family might include the anticipation of separation from the foster child (e.g., Anjos et al., Reference Anjos, Magalhães, Graça, Pinto, Baptista and Pinheiro2023; Buehler et al., Reference Buehler, Cox and Cuddeback2003; Contreras & Muñoz, Reference Contreras and Muñoz2016) and the foster family’s concerns about the birth family of the fostered child (e.g., Contreras & Muñoz, Reference Contreras and Muñoz2016). The anticipation of the separation process can bring about fears related to losing contact with the foster child (Anjos et al., Reference Anjos, Magalhães, Graça, Pinto, Baptista and Pinheiro2023), and there may be concerns about the emotional impact of this separation on the foster family and/or foster child (Ferreira et al., Reference Ferreira, Magalhães, Pinto and Graça2025). In turn, fear of contact with birth families may include concerns related to the privacy and security of foster families. Additionally, difficulties in the relationship with the birth family can be a source of fear (Contreras & Muñoz, Reference Contreras and Muñoz2016), which is a critical barrier to being a foster carer. The use of coping narratives and narrative resilience could reduce the influence of these barriers, as such narratives not only acknowledge barriers but also provide suggestions for overcoming them (Gesser-Edelsburg, Reference Gesser-Edelsburg2021; Horstman et al., Reference Horstman, Pedro, Goldschmidt, Watson and Butauski2023).
In addition to developing and testing different types of message content to promote foster care, it is also relevant to understand the psychological processes through which these messages can influence the desired outcomes (McQueen et al., Reference McQueen, Kreuter, Kalesan and Alcaraz2011). Narrative communication research (e.g., Green & Fitzgerald, Reference Green and Fitzgerald2017) has shown that stories containing specific elements can transport audiences into the narrative and enhance their identification with characters. Specifically, identification is described as a process in which an individual assumes the perspective of a character, leading to greater cognitive and emotional immersion in the story (Cohen, Reference Cohen2001). This mechanism focuses on sharing a character’s viewpoint, goals, and emotions (Cohen, Reference Cohen2001; Tal-Or & Cohen, Reference Tal-Or and Cohen2010). In addition, transportation involves a psychological state in which individuals become engaged in a narrative, directing their attention, thoughts, and feelings to the story’s events (Green et al., Reference Green, Brock and Kaufman2004). Beyond fostering identification and transportation, narratives also have the potential to evoke emotional responses (McQueen & Kreuter, Reference McQueen and Kreuter2010; Savard et al., Reference Savard, Merlo, Samithamby, Paas and Coffey2024). Research has shown that these three mechanisms—identification, transportation, emotional engagement—play a role in developing narratives that may influence the target audience’s attitudes, beliefs, willingness, and intentions (Akbari, Reference Akbari2015; Boukes and LaMarre, Reference Boukes and LaMarre2021; Dunlop et al., Reference Dunlop, Wakefield and Kashima2008; Green, Reference Green and Donsbach2008; Lewis et al., Reference Lewis, Watson and White2008; Liu & Yang, Reference Liu and Yang2020; McQueen & Kreuter, Reference McQueen and Kreuter2010; Van Laer et al., Reference Van Laer, de Ruyter, Visconti and Wetzels2014).
As for determining the effectiveness of the messages, it is relevant to evaluate the message results to understand whether the messages are capable of producing the expected results (Lewis et al., Reference Lewis, Watson and White2016; Yzer et al., Reference Yzer, LoRusso and Nagler2015). Although there is a growing effort to develop messages and recruitment campaigns for new foster families, there are no published studies that evaluate the results of these campaigns (Wilkinson & Wright, Reference Wilkinson and Wright2024). This makes it difficult to identify areas for improvement and to determine the most effective strategies for recruiting new foster families. Thus, to evaluate the results of a campaign, scholars and practitioners can test its perceived effectiveness (i.e., how the public perceives the quality and persuasiveness of the messages; Yzer et al., Reference Yzer, LoRusso and Nagler2015), the emotional responses elicited by the messages (Krause & Rucker, Reference Krause and Rucker2020; Lewis et al., Reference Lewis, Watson and White2016), and, for testimonials and narrative communication, the extent to which the audiences identify with the characters and are transported into the story (Tal-Or & Cohen, Reference Tal-Or and Cohen2010).
The Current Study
Given the global need to recruit foster families (Berrick et al., Reference Berrick, Shauffer and Rodriguez2011; Diogo & Branco, Reference Diogo and Branco2017; Magalhães et al., Reference Magalhães, Costa, Pinto, Graça, Baptista, Ferreira, Castro, Anjos and Gouveia2022) and the lack of studies on the development and evaluation of messages in the context of foster care, this study aimed to develop and evaluate theoretically informed messages to increase awareness, willingness, and intention to foster.
Our first objective was to develop theory-based messages to promote engagement with foster care and evaluate these messages in terms of message-related (i.e., identification, transportation, emotional response, and perceived effectiveness; Krause & Rucker, Reference Krause and Rucker2020; Lewis et al., Reference Lewis, Watson and White2016; Liu & Yang, Reference Liu and Yang2020) and audience-focused variables (i.e., awareness, willingness, and intention to become a foster family). Perceived effectiveness is often considered a proxy for the expected impact of a campaign and is associated with changes in the attitudes, intentions, and behaviors targeted by the message or campaign (e.g., Davis et al., Reference Davis, Nonnemaker, Duke and Farrelly2013; Yzer et al., Reference Yzer, LoRusso and Nagler2015). Additionally, creating awareness about foster care and increasing willingness and intentions are also important prerequisites for recruiting new foster families (Magalhães et al., Reference Magalhães, Costa, Pinto, Graça, Baptista, Ferreira, Castro, Anjos and Gouveia2022; Sebba, Reference Sebba2012).
Our secondary objective is to examine the mediating role of the message-related features’ identification, transportation, and emotional response on the potential differences between messages in terms of perceived effectiveness, awareness, willingness, and intention to become a foster family. Past research suggests that these variables can enhance the impact of messages and campaigns (Dunlop et al., Reference Dunlop, Wakefield and Kashima2008; Hamby & Jones, Reference Hamby and Jones2022; Krakow et al., Reference Krakow, Yale, Jensen, Carcioppolo and Ratcliff2018; Krause & Rucker, Reference Krause and Rucker2020; Liu & Yang, Reference Liu and Yang2020). Therefore, analyzing how these characteristics mediate observed differences between messages can shed light on the mechanisms through which these messages can encourage people to consider becoming foster families.
Method
Message Development
We developed the messages for this study based on relevant research on foster care (e.g., Anjos et al., Reference Anjos, Magalhães, Graça, Pinto, Baptista and Pinheiro2023; Baer and Diehl, Reference Baer and Diehl2019; Contreras & Muñoz, Reference Contreras and Muñoz2016; Magalhães et al., Reference Magalhães, Costa, Pinto, Graça, Baptista, Ferreira, Castro, Anjos and Gouveia2022), social marketing (e.g., Van den Putte & Dhondt, Reference Van den Putte and Dhondt2005; Zhao, Reference Zhao2020) (see Table 1), as well as operational frameworks for designing and testing messages (e.g., SatMDT, Lewis et al. Reference Lewis, Watson and White2016; PHM framework, Hall & Johnson-Turbes, Reference Hall and Johnson-Turbes2015), in four steps.
Theoretically informed foster care messages
First Step: Target Audience
The first step consisted of defining the target audience: adults from the general population (i.e., who did not have direct and close contact with the foster care system) and who are eligible to be a foster family (i.e., ≥25 years).
Second Step: Content Development and Execution Strategy
We developed content for the messages based on previous research on motivations for fostering and broad scope models of attitudes and behaviors. Regarding the execution strategies, we used a narrative approach through a testimonial format (e.g., Gesser-Edelsburg, Reference Gesser-Edelsburg2021) in the first-person plural (Green & Fitzgerald, Reference Green and Fitzgerald2017; Kim & Lim, Reference Kim and Lim2022) and elements to enhance identification and transportation in the target audience. To enhance identification, the messages emphasized perceived similarity with the foster family by sharing attributes (e.g., “We are a family like any other with qualities and difficulties”) and objectives (e.g., “[A family that] tries to do the best it can help others”) (Cohen, Reference Cohen2001). Vivid descriptions and emotional content were included to enhance transportation (e.g., “This gave us the confidence to […]”). We also aimed to convey realism through the plausibility of the characters, responses from the foster family to relevant and accurate events, and the use of realistic scenarios (Cho et al., Reference Cho, Shen and Wilson2014; Green & Fitzgerald, Reference Green and Fitzgerald2017; Green & Brock, Reference Green and Brock2000; Isberner et al., Reference Isberner, Richter, Schreiner, Eisenbach, Sommer and Appel2019). We developed four messages, each with a consistent word count ranging between 115 and 121 words and the same structure: an introductory paragraph, a development paragraph, and a concluding paragraph. The introductory and concluding paragraphs were identical in all messages and included in an additional message with only the introductory and concluding paragraph (message five, see Table 1), which was used as a baseline message to improve the internal validity of the study. This allows us to disentangle potential effects of the content presented in the development paragraphs vis-à-vis the content in the introductory and concluding paragraphs, which was held constant across messages. Table 1 provides an overview of all five messages tested in the study.
Message 1. Child-centered motivations have been identified in previous research as a facilitator for becoming a foster family (e.g., Anjos et al., Reference Anjos, Magalhães, Graça, Pinto, Baptista and Pinheiro2023; Baer and Diehl, Reference Baer and Diehl2019; Gouveia et al., Reference Gouveia, Magalhães and Pinto2021; Magalhães et al., Reference Magalhães, Costa, Pinto, Graça, Baptista, Ferreira, Castro, Anjos and Gouveia2022). This motivation includes, for instance, the desire to make a difference in a child’s life and wanting to provide a family context to avoid placement in residential care (see Table 1).
Message 2. Action planning is proposed in several attitudes and behavioral change models (e.g., HAPA model; Schwarzer, Reference Schwarzer2008) as a key component to adopt a new behavior. It consists of formulating detailed plans on when, where, and how to implement a behavior.
Message 3. The anticipation of separation from the foster child has been identified in previous studies as a barrier for becoming a foster family (e.g., Anjos et al., Reference Anjos, Magalhães, Graça, Pinto, Baptista and Pinheiro2023; Buehler et al., Reference Buehler, Cox and Cuddeback2003; Contreras & Muñoz, Reference Contreras and Muñoz2016). This barrier involves fears related to losing contact with the foster child and concerns about the emotional impact of this separation on the foster family and/or foster children. Highlight that relationships can continue in different ways is suggested as a strategy to address this barrier.
Message 4. Foster families’ concerns about the foster child’s birth family have been reported as a barrier to the decision to become a foster family (e.g., Contreras & Muñoz, Reference Contreras and Muñoz2016). This barrier may include concerns related to the privacy and security of foster families as well as fears related to difficulties in the relationship with the birth family. Gaining experience, receiving support, and changing perspective are suggested as strategies for dealing with these concerns.
Message 5. This message served as a control or baseline message. Previous work has indicated that incorporating realistic elements that focus on both positive and challenging aspects into messages can increase perceived authenticity (Boeijinga et al., Reference Boeijinga, Hoeken and Sanders2017). This message includes elements present in all messages (i.e., content present in the introduction and final paragraph), namely, positive, and challenging aspects of foster care, as well as information about the support provided by the foster care system.
Third Step: Pilot Test
The third step consisted of a pilot test to evaluate responses to the messages (Lewis et al., Reference Lewis, Watson and White2016). The test involved a group discussion with eight individuals aged 25 years or over (four females and four males) who had no contact with the foster care system. They were asked to complete the questionnaire developed within the scope of this study (used later in data collection) and share their feedback in terms of identification, transportation, emotions elicited, and perceived effectiveness of the message they read. Participants also provided feedback on the clarity and intelligibility of the messages. Overall, individuals found the messages concise, straightforward, and easy to comprehend. They emphasized the importance of adding emotional elements for reader involvement and confirmed the importance of presenting coping strategies in messages that address obstacles to produce the intended persuasive impact. Following the discussion, the research team implemented minor adjustments based on the feedback from participants.
Fourth Step: Evaluation
The fourth and final step consisted of evaluating the effect of the messages (Lewis et al., Reference Lewis, Watson and White2016) on a set of message-related (i.e., identification, transportation, emotional response, perceived effectiveness) and audience-focused variables (i.e., awareness, willingness, and intention to become a foster family). The methods and results are presented in the current and following sections of this study.
Participants
A total of 405 Portuguese adults aged 25 years or older (M age = 40.4, SD = 10.5, range 25–72) participated in this study. A sensitivity power analysis was conducted via G*Power software and indicated that the sample of 405 allows 80% power to detect effects of η 2 = .031, 90% power to detect effects of η 2 = .039, and 95% power to detect effects of η 2 = .047. Most of the participants were female (67.2%), 46.7% were married, 40.7% were single, 11.6% were divorced, and 1% were widowed. Regarding education, 42.2% had a higher education (23.7% undergraduate, 16.8% master’s degree, and 1.7% doctoral degree), 38.5% had secondary education, and 17.8% had primary school education. Most participants were employed (86.7%) and had children (65.6%) (Table 2). All participants had to meet the following eligibility criteria: being aged 25 or over (as being 25 or over is a criterion for being a foster family in Portugal) and not having close contact with the foster care system. Given the aims of the study, people who were or had been foster families in the past, reported knowing foster families, had previous contact with the foster care system, and/or were professionals in the child protection system were not eligible to participate.
Sample socio-demographic characteristics
Design, Procedure, and Measures
This study used a between-group experimental design. Participants were randomly assigned to one of six conditions. Four of these conditions targeted two enablers and two barriers (and their coping strategies). The other two conditions were used as controls. Specifically, a condition with the same introductory and concluding paragraph content as the other conditions was developed to serve as the baseline condition. The other control condition, which served as the second control group, exposed participants to no information (i.e., no messages). The data were collected through Qualtrics.com and disseminated via paid advertisements on Instagram and Facebook, asking participants to share the study with their contact list (snowball strategy), as well as through requests for participation and dissemination with various entities such as schools, parents’ associations, and governmental organizations.
Participants were provided with information about the study and were asked to give their informed consent before completing the questionnaire. Participants who were under the age of 25 (i.e., formal requirement to be a foster family is to be 25 years or older), reported having been a foster family in the past, reported knowing foster families, or were professionals working in the child protection system were not eligible to participate and therefore forwarded to a debriefing. In turn, participants who met the eligibility criteria answered a set of other sociodemographic questions, including gender, marital status, nationality, education, employment status, profession, monthly income, and parental experience (i.e., having children). Participants were then assigned to one of the six conditions. Participants assigned to reading one of the conditions were asked to carefully read a testimonial from a foster family (see Table 1), which presented either facilitators for becoming a foster family, namely “Child-centered motivation” (condition 1) and “Action plan” (condition 2), or coping strategies for dealing with obstacles to becoming a foster family, namely “Dealing with and overcoming the anticipation of separation from the foster child” (condition 3), “Dealing with and overcoming fears associated with the child in care (including their biological family)” (condition 4), or a factor that was constant in all messages—“Positive and challenging aspects of foster care and self-efficacy” (condition 5). After participants read the message, we asked them to complete a set of questions regarding identification, transportation, emotional response, and perceived effectiveness (see description of the measures below), followed by questions on willingness, intention, and awareness about foster care. Participants in the “no message” control condition only responded to the questions on willingness, intention, and awareness about foster care (i.e., they were not asked questions about the messages). At the end of the questionnaire, a debriefing was provided including the contact details of the research team for questions or clarifications.
Identification
Identification was assessed using three items taken and adapted from Tal-Or and Cohen (Reference Tal-Or and Cohen2010) (“As I read, I felt what this foster family felt,” “I think I understand this foster family well,” and “I tend to understand why this foster family did what they did.”) and answered using a 7-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 = Strongly disagree to 7 = Strongly agree (α = .87).
Transportation
Transportation was assessed with three items taken and adapted from Tal-Or and Cohen (Reference Tal-Or and Cohen2010) (“I could imagine myself in the scenario described,” “I felt mentally involved in the testimony,” and “The testimony impacted me emotionally.”) and answered using a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = Strongly disagree to 7 = Strongly agree (α = .89).
Emotional Response
Participants’ emotional response was assessed using the short version of the portuguese positive and negative affect scale—PANAS-VRP (Galinha et al., Reference Galinha, Pereira and Esteves2014), with the instruction “Please, indicate to what extent you felt each of these emotions after reading the testimony of a foster family” followed by 10 items (e.g., interested, nervous, enthusiastic, scared, inspired), allowing the assessment of positive affect (α = .89) and negative affect (α = .87). These items were answered using a 7-point Likert-type scale (ranging from 1 = Not at all or very slightly to 7 = Extremely).
Perceived Effectiveness
Participants also answered questions related to the perceived effectiveness of the testimony using the perceived effectiveness scale (Davis et al., Reference Davis, Duke, Shafer, Patel, Rodes and Beistle2017), which consists of 6 items (i.e., “This testimonial: (1) was worth remembering; (2) grabbed my attention; (3) was powerful; (4) was informative; (5) was meaningful; (6) was convincing”). These items were answered using a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = Strongly disagree to 7 = Strongly agree (α = .91).
Awareness
An item was developed based on Dyehouse et al. (Reference Dyehouse, Diefes-Dux, Bennett and Imbrie2008) to assess awareness in the context of foster care, i.e., “Please read the following statement and indicate your level of agreement: “How familiar are you with foster care? Specifically, I know the foster care system.” The item was answered using a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = Strongly disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree.
Willingness
A single item was used to measure willingness to become a foster family (“I would like to become a foster family”). The item was taken from Magalhães et al. (Reference Magalhães, Costa, Pinto, Graça, Baptista, Ferreira, Castro, Anjos and Gouveia2022) and was answered using a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 7 = Strongly Agree.
Intention
Intention to foster was measured using three items (e.g., “I am willing to be a foster family shortly”) taken from Magalhães et al. (Reference Magalhães, Costa, Pinto, Graça, Baptista, Ferreira, Castro, Anjos and Gouveia2022). The items were answered on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 7 = Strongly Agree (α = .95).
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed using IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)® for Windows (Version 29.0) for descriptive statistics, variance, and mediation analyses using regression models. One-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVAs) were conducted to determine statistically significant differences between conditions in terms of identification, transportation, and perceived effectiveness, controlling for gender, age, and parental experience. The same was performed to identify differences between conditions in awareness, willingness, and intention. When significant differences between conditions were detected, multiple comparison tests (Bonferroni) were used to identify and qualify these differences. Since the emotional response variable consisted of two dimensions (i.e., positive and negative affect), we performed a multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) instead of two ANCOVAs (but still including gender, age, and parental experience as covariates). Gender was measured including five options (1: Female, 2: Male, 3: Non-binary, 4: Other, and 5: Prefer not to answer), but given the low prevalence of other genders in the sample (N = 2), we created a dummy variable (0: Female, 1: Male).
To test identification, transportation, and emotional response as mediators to explain differences between messages in our main outcome variables (perceived effectiveness, awareness, willingness or intention), our approach was to use Process macro v4.2 (model 4, univariate mediation model) whenever those differences were significant in the pairwise comparisons (using each pair of conditions as dummy variables).
Results
Message-Related Variables
An ANCOVA revealed no significant differences between the conditions in terms of identification F(4, 290) = 1.429, p = .224, ηp 2 = .019. Similarly, a MANCOVA showed that there were no significant differences between the conditions and emotional response F(8, 578) = 1.400, p = .193, Wilks’ Λ = .962, ηp 2 = .019. However, there were significant differences in transportation F(4, 290) = 4.068, p = .003, ηp 2 = .053. Pairwise comparisons using Bonferroni correction showed that participants exposed to condition 3: Dealing with and overcoming the anticipation of separation from the foster child (M = 5.32, SD = .963) scored significantly higher than participants exposed to the baseline condition (M = 4.65, SD = 1.197) (CI 95% [−1.240, −.053]; p = .023). There were also significant differences between the conditions in perceived effectiveness F(4, 290) = 3.943, p = .004, ηp 2 = .052. Pairwise comparisons using Bonferroni correction revealed that participants exposed to condition 3—dealing with and overcoming the anticipation of separation from the foster child (M = 3.95, SD = .573) scored significantly higher than participants exposed to the baseline condition (M = 3.58, SD = .592) (CI 95% [−.695, −.033]; p = .020), see Table 3.
ANCOVA and MANCOVA for message-related variables
Note: *Results from multivariate tests using Wilks’ Lambda; **Covariate results using Wilks’ Lambda. All models were tested controlling for age, gender, and parental experience.
Audience-Related Variables
The ANCOVA revealed significant effects of our manipulation on awareness about foster care F(5, 393) = 2.513, p = .030, ηp 2 = .031, but the paired comparisons using Bonferroni correction revealed no significant differences between conditions in awareness (p = .056), pointing to a lack of robustness of this effect. Furthermore, there were no significant differences in willingness F(5, 393) = .605, p = .696, ηp 2 = .008 or intention to become a foster family F(5, 393) = .389, p = .856, ηp 2 = .005, see Table 4.
ANCOVA for audience-related variables
Note: All models were tested controlling for age, gender, and parental experience.
Mediation Models
As previously reported, no significant effects were found between conditions and identification, nor between conditions and emotional responses. Thus, identification and emotional responses were not included in the mediation models as mediators. In addition, given that statistically significant differences in transportation were observed only between condition 3 (dealing with and overcoming the anticipation of separation from the foster child) and the baseline condition, we tested these two experimental conditions in the mediation models.
Four mediation models (PROCESS, model 4) were used to assess whether condition 3 (dealing with and overcoming the anticipation of separation from the foster child), compared to the baseline condition (condition 5), influenced perceived effectiveness, awareness, willingness, and intention through transportation. In all models, the results revealed that exposure to condition 3, compared to baseline condition, increased transportation levels, and transportation also revealed statistically significant effects on perceived effectiveness, awareness, willingness, and intention (see Table S1 in Supplementary Materials).
In model 1, with perceived effectiveness as the dependent variable, the results indicated that both the total effect (β = .357, 95% CI [.147, .567]) and the indirect effect via transportation were significant (β = .212, 95% CI [.083, .347]). The direct effect of the condition on perceived effectiveness was not significant (p = .103). This finding suggests that transportation fully mediated the influence of this message on perceived effectiveness.
In model 2, with awareness as the dependent variable, the results revealed the total effect was not significant (β = −.063, 95%, CI [−.701, .574], p = .843), but the indirect effect via transportation was significant (β = .253, 95% CI [.050, .537]). The direct effect of the condition on awareness was not significant (p = .335). The same pattern of findings was found in the other models. In Model 3, with willingness to become a foster family as the dependent variable, the total effect was not significant (β = .382, 95%, CI [−.236, 1.001], p = .223), but the indirect effect via transportation was statistically significant (β = .471, 95% CI [.171, .806]). The direct effect of the condition on willingness was not significant (p = .762).
Finally, in model 4, with intention as the dependent variable, the results revealed that the total effect was not significant (β = .034, 95%, CI [−.548, .617], p = .907), but the indirect effect via transportation was significant (β = .481, 95% CI [.188, .808]). The direct effect of the message on intention was not significant (p = .098). As such, indirect-only mediation effects were found in models 2, 3, and 4. Taken together, these findings suggest that exposure to the message presented in condition 3 (dealing with and overcoming the anticipation of separation from the foster child) was linked with higher levels of transportation, which, in turn, were associated with greater perceived effectiveness, awareness, willingness, and intention to become a foster parent.
Discussion
This study aimed to develop and evaluate theoretically informed messages to increase behavioral related outcomes associated with fostering children in need. We developed and tested a total of six conditions—i.e., two narratives involving foster care enablers (i.e., child-centered motivation or action planning), two coping narratives (i.e., dealing with and overcoming the anticipation of separation from the foster child or other fears associated with the child in care), and two controls (i.e., a condition with constant information presented in all conditions, which served as baseline, and a final condition without exposure to any message). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to experimentally test messages about foster care with the potential to inform recruitment strategies for new foster families.
Specifically, we first aimed to evaluate these messages based on audience-focused variables (i.e., awareness, willingness, and intention to become a foster family) and message-related variables (i.e., transportation, identification, emotional response, and perceived effectiveness). Our findings revealed no statistically significant differences in the audience-related variables between the experimental and control conditions. This suggests that a brief exposure to a short narrative message on the topic may not be sufficient to reliably increase awareness, willingness, and intention to become a foster family. Instead, achieving meaningful changes in these outcomes may require systematic, continuous, or more prolonged exposure to messages and campaigns promoting foster care.
However, in terms of message-related variables, the message focused on dealing with and overcoming the anticipation of separation from the foster child generated higher levels of transportation and perceived effectiveness than the baseline condition. This message was designed using elements known to enhance transportation, such as vivid descriptions and emotional content, along with the responses of the foster family to the situation portrayed (Cho et al., Reference Cho, Shen and Wilson2014; Green & Brock, Reference Green and Brock2000; Green & Fitzgerald, Reference Green and Fitzgerald2017; Isberner et al., Reference Isberner, Richter, Schreiner, Eisenbach, Sommer and Appel2019). In contrast, the baseline condition did not incorporate such elements, as it was designed to control for the potential effects of content in the introductory and concluding paragraphs across all conditions.
Although all experimental conditions were developed to include transportation-enhancing elements, only the message addressing the anticipation of separation from the foster child yielded significant results. This finding suggests that content related to anticipating separation may have engaged participants’ cognitive and attentional processes more effectively. Experiencing or anticipating relational losses is a universal human experience that may make this content particularly familiar and relatable. Indeed, research indicates that audiences are more likely to experience transportation when they are familiar with the themes and materials (Bae et al., Reference Bae, Lee and Bae2014; Green & Fitzgerald, Reference Green and Fitzgerald2017; Van Laer et al., Reference Van Laer, de Ruyter, Visconti and Wetzels2014) or when they can relate the story to their own memories or experiences (Escalas, Reference Escalas2007). The results from the mediation model supported this interpretation, as differences in perceived effectiveness between the two conditions were fully explained (i.e., mediated) by differences in transportation. The mediation models also revealed a significant indirect effect of this message on awareness, willingness, and intention through transportation, further pointing to transportation as a relevant psychological mechanism for the recruitment of foster families. However, the absence of significant results concerning identification or emotional responses may be linked with the nature of the messages (i.e., brief, single exposure) in combination with the limited knowledge about foster care in Portugal (Negrão et al., Reference Negrão, Moreira, Veríssimo and Veiga2019). This combination may have hindered participants’ ability to identify with the family in the narratives (i.e., sharing perspectives, goals, and feelings; Cohen, Reference Cohen2001; Tal-Or & Cohen, Reference Tal-Or and Cohen2010) within a short exposure. Research suggests that prolonged exposure to a character and increased familiarity over time increase audience engagement and identification (Cohen, Reference Cohen2001; Sanders & Tsay-Vogel, Reference Sanders and Tsay-Vogel2016).
Taken together, the results of this study have implications for research and practice on the recruitment of foster carers. First, several factors can contribute to increasing audience transportation, which should be considered when designing these types of messages. For written narratives or testimonials, it is important to ensure that they are easy to understand, read, and imagine (Green & Fitzgerald, Reference Green and Fitzgerald2017). Perceiving that the message reports a story or an event that is plausible, genuine, and realistic (i.e., plausibility and verisimilitude) can also increase transportation (Cho et al. Reference Cho, Shen and Wilson2014; Green & Fitzgerald Reference Green and Fitzgerald2017). Therefore, it may be important to express realism through the plausibility of the characters or exemplars, present their responses to relevant and accurate events, and to use realistic settings. The realism referred here pertains not necessarily to the resemblance that messages have to the real world, but to their psychological credibility. This implies that characters or exemplars should act like real individuals, even within a fictional context (Green & Fitzgerald Reference Green and Fitzgerald2017). Furthermore, when developing messages, it may be equally important to consider incorporating vivid descriptions and developing emotionally moving narratives (Ching et al., Reference Ching, Tong, Chen and Chen2013; Cho et al., Reference Cho, Shen and Wilson2014; Green & Fitzgerald, Reference Green and Fitzgerald2017). This may involve highlighting the emotional aspects of various actions, events, or decisions (Green & Fitzgerald, Reference Green and Fitzgerald2017). Finally, structuring a narrative in chronological order and creating suspense by providing general information that alludes to a future event can also enhance a message’s ability to generate transportation (Green & Fitzgerald, Reference Green and Fitzgerald2017).
Moreover, it might be beneficial to consider increasing the frequency of message exposure, as studies have shown a positive link between increased exposure and favorable results (e.g., Snyder, Reference Snyder2007). Thus, it would be relevant to develop longitudinal studies that evaluate the effects of repeated exposure to messages to a given target audience to inform more effective and sustainable communication strategies. Studies in this context could provide important insights into how the frequency of exposure affects identification mechanisms, attention, the target audience’s response to messages, which, in turn, might foster awareness, willingness, and intention to become a foster family.
In this study, the messages were targeted at adults from the general population (i.e., who did not have direct and close contact with the foster care system) and who were eligible to be a foster family (i.e., ≥25 years). In future studies, it could be relevant to deliver messages to people at different stages of the process of becoming a foster family (i.e., people without any knowledge about foster care, people who express willingness but not an intention to become foster families, and people who demonstrate their intention and are willing to move forward with the decision). As such, future studies should identify different profiles of potential foster families to inform future targeted and tailored recruitment processes.
To conclude, despite its limitations, the results from this study inform the development of future research on how to develop and evaluate messages and campaigns to recruit new foster families. The findings point to the need to assess the effectiveness of systematic, continuous, or more prolonged exposure to campaigns promoting foster care, rather than relying solely on single, brief, stand-alone messages. The results also point to the importance of narrative communication, particularly the role of transportation, in shaping audience perceptions of message effectiveness.
Supplementary material
To view supplementary material for this article, please visit http://doi.org/10.1017/SJP.2025.10004.
Data Availability Statement
The data, methods used in the analysis, code, and materials used to conduct the research will be made available for reproduction purposes upon request.
Author Contribution
Sofia Ferreira: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, funding acquisition, formal analysis, writing—original draft, writing—review & editing. João Graça: conceptualization, methodology, writing—review & editing, supervision. Eunice Magalhães: conceptualization, methodology, writing—review & editing, supervision.
Funding Statement
This work was supported by Portuguese national funds through a doctoral grant from FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I. P. (UI/BD/150992/2021; https://doi.org/10.54499/UI/BD/150992/2021).
Competing Interests
The authors declare none.
