Overview

Nation's Learning vocabulary in another language is the essential text for anyone interested in research on vocabulary. It was written with an audience of second and foreign language teachers in mind. However, it may be even more useful for graduate students and researchers because Nation provides the most comprehensive review of research on vocabulary available with reference to over 600 books and articles. Because of the length of the text and the fact that some topics relate to several chapters, the reader may sometimes find it difficult to locate a particular issue. This is particularly true for chapters 5 and 7, which both deal with learning vocabulary through reading. However, an author index, as well as a subject index, allows readers to quickly track down references and topics. Despite the amount of detail, the text is surprisingly accessible because Nation skilfully applies experimental findings to the teaching and learning of vocabulary. The text juxtaposes the theory supported by detailed reviews of studies and the pedagogical implications of the research with frequent instructions for teachers and examples of teaching tasks included. For example, in the third chapter, Nation begins by describing the ‘What is it?’ vocabulary teaching technique, explaining the learning goal of the activity, and reporting the best ways to use teaching techniques. The chapter soon moves from the practical to the theoretical with sections on the psychological conditions necessary for vocabulary learning (noticing, retrieval, creative or generative use). From there, the chapter moves back to the practical with short sections on designing activities to encourage noticing, retrieval, and generation.

The book begins by looking at the different ways in which words can be counted (tokens, types, lemmas, and word families), the number of words which native speakers know, and the different types of vocabulary (high-frequency, low-frequency, academic, and technical words). While providing useful insight, this is one of the few places in the book that needs to be updated because subsequent research has shown that the percentage of technical vocabulary found in academic text is higher (Chung & Nation Reference Chung and Nation2003). The second chapter deals with what is involved in knowing a word. Here Nation presents a new framework with nine different aspects of vocabulary knowledge which can then be broken down into receptive and productive knowledge. The description of vocabulary knowledge is the most detailed account available and expands upon the framework he created in his earlier book (Nation Reference Nation1990), which listed eight different aspects of vocabulary knowledge. In chapter 3, Nation looks at the psychological conditions necessary for vocabulary learning to occur and follows up his description of vocabulary knowledge by discussing which teaching activities may contribute to each aspect of knowledge. The next two chapters focus on the relationship between vocabulary on one hand and listening and speaking (chapter 4) and reading and writing (chapter 5) on the other. Perhaps because Nation has done considerable work analyzing the vocabulary in texts, chapter 5 in particular provides great insight into the research on learning vocabulary through extensive reading and the vocabulary size necessary to understand written text.

Chapter 6, ‘Specialized uses of vocabulary’ (pp. 187–216) is also particularly valuable because it draws on the work Nation, his colleagues, and graduate students have done on word lists and technical vocabulary. Great detail is provided on the Academic Word List (Coxhead Reference Coxhead2000), the importance of learning academic vocabulary, and the methodology involved in making word lists. This chapter should be of value to anyone with an interest in creating or working with word lists. The next two chapters focus on vocabulary learning strategies. Nation clearly demonstrates the need for teachers to spend significant time in the classroom teaching learners strategies to increase vocabulary learning. Although there are many different strategies associated with vocabulary learning, Nation focuses for the most part on four: guessing from context, learning word parts, using dictionaries, and learning from word cards. Of particular interest here is the strong argument behind learning through L1–L2 translation on word cards and in bilingual dictionaries. Although Nation has long been an advocate of using decontextualized tasks together with extensive reading, his has been one of the few voices in support of this approach. Chapter 8 is especially useful for language teachers as it focuses on vocabulary learning strategies which have not received much attention in the literature (word parts) or strategies which have often been criticized (learning from word cards).

Nation devotes one chapter to multi-word items, examining research on describing and classifying collocations. This chapter is not nearly as dense as the other sections of the book, perhaps because of the lack of research in this area at the time of publication, and it is the one chapter of the book which may need to be expanded upon in a future edition. The chapter on testing is another of the very strong ones in the book, organized around the questions which teachers may ask when considering vocabulary tests. A large number of examples of question types are provided, making the chapter very accessible despite the complexity of the issues surrounding testing. The final chapter has much greater pedagogical focus looking at ‘designing the vocabulary component of a course’ (p. 380).

Teaching vocabulary: Strategies and techniques was written for teachers and is clearly focused on pedagogy. There are several similarities to Learning vocabulary in another language. In the first chapter there is an explanation of the different types of vocabulary (high-frequency, low-frequency, technical, academic words) and suggestions about the types of words teachers should spend time on in class. Several chapters are organized around the different skills. In the earlier book, reading and writing, and listening and speaking are grouped together while in this book they are separated into individual chapters. There are also chapters on specialized vocabulary, testing vocabulary, and planning the vocabulary component of a language course, which deal with many of the same issues as the previous book. Thus, in its organization, Teaching vocabulary: Strategies and techniques has a structure similar to the earlier book. However, in its content there are many differences between the two.

The biggest difference is how the books read. While the earlier book was ‘intended to be used by second and foreign language teachers’ (p. 4), its depth and numerous summaries of research may have made it difficult to quickly find the sections which applied to the classroom. However, in the later book the focus is clearly on pedagogy from beginning to end. While all of the chapters and subsections draw on research findings, only the most relevant research is referenced, thereby keeping the focus clearly on teaching vocabulary. This is also apparent from the table of contents, where one can see that many of the subsections in the chapters are written as questions which readers may have about teaching and learning.

One of the central features of the book are the 68 clearly described teaching techniques organized around the topics in each chapter. They are all clearly signalled with double lines before and after each mention, and range from fairly simple and well-known activities such as Twenty questions (p. 46) and Spelling dictation (p. 86) to much more complex activities such as Beating the odds (pp. 47–48), which involves four tasks: ranking, finding causes, classifying, and analyzing. The wide range of techniques described makes the book a valuable resource for teachers searching for vocabulary related activities in the classroom and they are all conveniently listed in the index. This may not be clear to the reader at first, however, and it would have been useful to have them listed in a separate index.

With the increased focus on vocabulary, there has been an increase in the number of ways in which vocabulary has been measured. For example, research has focused on measuring both receptive and productive vocabulary size, depth of vocabulary knowledge, strength of vocabulary knowledge, the ability to infer the meaning of words met in context, and the frequency of words used in writing. A book on testing vocabulary therefore has great relevance to research and pedagogy. Read's Assessing vocabulary is an essential reference for those who are involved or interested in vocabulary tests. It provides the background knowledge necessary to analyze specific vocabulary tests as well as to develop valid measures of vocabulary. The book was written for teachers, researchers and test developers, and the topics covered apply to each of these groups. However, the analysis of research on vocabulary and testing and the focus on comprehensive measures of vocabulary may appeal more to the latter two groups and graduate students. Although books on testing may be intimidating for some readers, the explanations provided of terms and examples of the various tests make it very accessible. Moreover, each chapter begins with an introduction and finishes with a summary making it easier for readers to follow.

Read provides a useful framework consisting of three dimensions which can be used to examine instruments used in vocabulary assessment. The first dimension, discrete–embedded, relates to the extent to which a test measures an independent construct (vocabulary) or a larger construct (language ability). The second dimension, selective–comprehensive, refers to the extent to which a test measures specific vocabulary items or the entire vocabulary encountered or used. The final dimension, context-independent–context-dependent relates to the extent to which the test-taker needs to engage with the context to produce the correct response in a test. The dimensions help to reveal critical differences between tests which may not always be clearly apparent. Throughout the book Read applies these dimensions to different vocabulary tests. For example, multiple-choice tests, which have been widely used to measure vocabulary knowledge, are discrete, selective, and context-independent. In chapter 5, where Read begins his analysis of four influential vocabulary tests (the Vocabulary Levels Test, the Eurocentres Vocabulary Size Test, the Vocabulary Knowledge Scale, and the Test of English as a Foreign Language) he classifies all four tests as selective, and three of the tests as discrete, context-independent tests. In his analysis of the various tests, it becomes clear that no single test is likely to be perfect.

Read reviews research on vocabulary assessment, looking at a number of test types and the construct validity of vocabulary tests. The differences between measures of breadth and depth of knowledge are discussed along with background on studies which have used these test types and the reasons for using them. Related topics such as what is involved in knowing a word and how words are counted are also covered and applied to testing. This introduces some of the key issues which need to be considered when selecting or developing tests.

Schmitt's edited collection Formulaic sequences: Acquisition, processing and use is a valuable addition to the research on vocabulary because it highlights an area that until recently has received very little attention. The collection of thirteen papers includes chapters from highly regarded researchers on vocabulary such as Alison Wray, Koenraad Kuiper, John Read and Paul Nation, Norbert Schmitt, Ronald Carter, Zoltán Dörnyei, and Michael McCarthy. The majority of the studies were completed by a team of researchers at the Centre for Research in Applied Linguistics at Nottingham University. Although the book may be of some interest to teachers, it may have greatest appeal to researchers and graduate students as it sheds light on an emerging area of interest in vocabulary and demonstrates that there are a large number of questions which remain to be answered on multi-word items. This is clearly apparent in the first chapter, by Schmitt & Carter, in which the authors provide some of the background on research into formulaic sequences and repeatedly state that research is lacking. This is also apparent in the trouble they had in deciding on the label for the notion of formulaic sequences used in the chapter, finally adopting Wray's (2002: 9) definition.

The second chapter, by Read & Nation, provides a satisfying continuation of the first, examining as it does the methodological issues relating to measurement of formulaic sequences. In particular, the difficulty with finding an adequate definition of formulaic sequences at both the conceptual level and in operational terms suggests that what is classified as formulaic language in one study may not be the same in another. Kuiper looks at how language has been conventionalized in the speech of certain professions such as auctioneers and race callers. The examination of how formulaic sequences are used in these situations may indicate how different segments of society may have their own traditions of formulaic language. Together, the first three chapters provide a useful overview of multi-word strings and there is a logical progression into the following chapters which introduce original research on formulaic language. Many of the articles draw on the work of Wray (Reference Wray2002), whose highly regarded book was also a valuable addition to the field. Both the chapters which provide background and those which present research make it clear that research on formulaic language is in its infancy. Each of the chapters probably raises as many questions as it answers and this makes the book both enlightening and interesting. Editor's comments sections at the end of each of the sections on acquisition, processing and use would have helped to show how the studies together shed light on research on multi-word units and this would be a useful addition in a future edition.

Researching vocabulary

Three of the four books reviewed here are useful for researchers interested in vocabulary. While Nation (2008) is clearly focused on pedagogy and is of limited value to researchers, they may find the volume on formulaic sequences of great interest as there are ten studies which used a number of different methodologies. For example, chapters 4, 5 and 6 all deal with the acquisition of formulaic sequences for learners from an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) course. However, in chapter 4, Schmitt, Dörnyei, Adolphs & Durow used a pre-test/post-test design to measure receptive and productive knowledge of a set of formulaic sequences as well as measures of aptitude and attitude/motivation. In chapter 5, Dörnyei, Durow & Zahran used the quantitative results from the first study but also added a qualitative component, and interviewed seven of the participants from the previous study (four of whom were identified as good learners and three as poor learners) and their tutors to gain greater insight into the findings of the previous study. The methodology used by Adolphs & Durow in chapter 6 involved case studies in which participants from the same EAP course were interviewed over a period of time. However, in this paper the transcripts of the interviews were analyzed to determine the learner's progress in their use of three-word formulaic sequences. Chapters 8 and 9 are particularly innovative in their designs, drawing on methodologies employed in research in psychology. In chapter 8, Underwood, Schmitt & Galpin monitored the eye movements of participants reading passages containing target formulaic sequences to determine whether there is any difference between how words in formulaic sequences and words which are not in formulaic sequences are processed. In chapter 9, Schmitt & Underwood measured the time it takes participants to read the same passages to determine the difference in the time necessary to recognize words embedded in formulaic and non-formulaic sequences. Together, the ten chapters with original studies in the volume provide not only interesting data on the acquisition of formulaic sequences for L2 learners but models for experimental designs for future research in this area.

While Schmitt's volume provides insight into research design, one of the useful features of Nation's 2001 book is that there is such a comprehensive review of research that it becomes quite clear where further research is warranted. However, if readers are still struggling for potential areas to research, there are also research topics aimed at graduate students and researchers which are listed according to each chapter on the website linked to the book, http://multimediafluids.uam.elogim.com/elt/nation/, which also provides additional resources for teachers and researchers. These include a bibliography of over 2000 publications on vocabulary which are listed alphabetically or according to 24 specific categories related to vocabulary. For example, the bibliography linked to specialized word lists shows over 50 publications associated within this area. Finally, there is a 30-item test which evaluates the degree of knowledge which the reader has acquired on topics covered in the book together with activities designed to either review or apply the material.

Although the focus in Read's volume is clearly on testing, there is a lot of background provided on researching vocabulary. This is useful for researchers because it provides the contexts for different types of vocabulary tests. It also makes the book much more reader-friendly for those who do not have such background knowledge. In chapter 3, Read reviews research on systematic vocabulary learning, incidental vocabulary learning, inferring the meaning of words from context, and communication strategies. In each case, he reviews notable research and then looks at issues which relate to assessment, providing insight not found in other publications since it highlights different methodological issues faced by researchers developing vocabulary tests. For example, when discussing assessment issues relating to incidental vocabulary learning, Read looks at the advantages and disadvantages of using a pre-test to measure vocabulary knowledge, how researchers have investigated incidental learning without using a pre-test, and how researchers have measured for partial knowledge of words encountered during reading. Looking at the research and then examining the issues relating to testing may be particularly useful for those readers who are planning to conduct research on vocabulary. The research is reviewed in sufficient detail to provide a useful background on specific areas of vocabulary studies, and the subsections on assessment issues are essentially a tutorial on the advantages and disadvantages of different experimental designs in each of these areas.

Teaching and learning vocabulary

Despite the different perspectives of the books, each makes useful contributions which may enhance our understanding of teaching and learning vocabulary. Both books by Nation provide significant insight on pedagogy. Nation (2001) clearly details the complexity of planning the vocabulary component in a language course. He presents a seven-part model of the course design process, which draws on points raised throughout the text and follows it up with a list of eight principles necessary for language learners to become autonomous vocabulary learners. Nation (2008) devotes considerable space to course planning for vocabulary learning but presents it in a format which may be more easily applied to teaching. He begins by outlining the need for learning to be balanced equally between the four strands of meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, language-focused learning, and fluency development. He states that the teacher has four jobs – planning, strategy training, testing, and teaching vocabulary – and that teaching vocabulary is only a small part of that job. Of greater importance is the type of vocabulary which should be taught. High-frequency and academic words should be taught alongside vocabulary learning strategies. What may also be of great value to teachers is the final chapter discussing the steps involved in planning for vocabulary learning in a course. This consists of measuring the vocabulary size of learners, determining the type and amount of vocabulary they need to learn, balancing the learning time equally between the four strands, measuring the extent of learning during the course, and evaluating the vocabulary features of the course. While both books by Nation focus on these points, his later book discusses the issues in a more teacher-friendly format.

The appendices in both texts contain some of the most useful contributions to teaching and learning vocabulary which Nation has produced, along with some of his graduate students and a number of well-established colleagues. In Nation (2001) the appendices include the headwords from Coxhead's (2000) Academic Word List; two versions of Nation's (Reference Nation and Tickoo1993) 1000 Word Level Test; Schmitt, Schmitt & Clapham's (Reference Schmitt, Schmitt and Clapham2001) updated Vocabulary Levels Test, which replaced Nation's (Reference Nation1983) and (Reference Nation1990) original test; a version of Laufer & Nation's (Reference Laufer and Nation1999) Productive Levels Test; Fountain & Nation's (Reference Fountain and Nation2000) Vocabulary Levels Dictation Test; and a list of function words. Nation reports on studies which showed that 270 function words provided over 43% vocabulary coverage of the running words in most texts. In Nation (2008) the first two appendices contain the most useful word lists for teachers: the General Service List, and the Academic Word List. The next three appendices include the Vocabulary Levels Test, Nation & Beglar's (Reference Nation and Beglar2007) Vocabulary Size Test, and the Productive Vocabulary Levels Test. The final appendix is Crabbe & Nation's (Reference Crabbe and Nation1991) eight-section syllabus of survival language for foreign travel.

While Nation's books specifically focus on teaching and learning vocabulary, Norbert Schmitt's volume includes research which has useful implications for teaching vocabulary. Bishop's study (pp. 227–248) indicated that highlighting multi-word items made them more noticeable to learners. This suggests that teachers may be able to facilitate learning of formulaic sequences by helping learners notice their typographical boundaries. Wray (pp. 249–268) demonstrated that learners can make impressive gains of the spoken form of multi-word strings through memorization in a short period of time, providing positive support for direct learning of formulaic sequences through word cards. However, the study also showed that after five months, typical learner errors may occur with memorized material, suggesting that teaching formulaic sequences without teaching their construction may not always be successful. Jones & Haywood's study (pp. 269–300) suggested that teaching formulaic sequences for two hours a week over a ten-week period is likely to increase awareness of those items but that it may not lead to the production of those words in writing. This emphasized the difficulty that learners may have using multi-word items. It is also important to note that in most language learning classrooms, teachers are not likely to have a similar amount of time to teach formulaic sequences. Thus, while each of the three studies provided some interesting results with direct implications for the classroom, they again highlighted the need for further research on learning multi-word items. Schmitt's volume indicates that there remains a lot to learn about how best to teach and learn formulaic sequences.

Read's book, as well as both of Nation's texts, provides useful insight for teachers into vocabulary testing. His analysis of discrete vocabulary tests (chapter 6) may be most applicable to teaching as it reads like a guide for developing vocabulary tests for the classroom. Issues such as the purpose of the test, the construct definition, and the characteristics of the test input and the expected response influence the design of discrete tests. Read breaks down each issue with examples teachers can relate to. Thus, in the section on the characteristics of the expected response, self-report as opposed to verifiable response measures are discussed, as well as monolingual/ bilingual tests. He follows up his analysis with some practical examples of different formats such as matching, completion, and sentence writing questions, and discusses what needs to be considered when using each format. The sections may help teachers develop their own tests as well as answer the questions which they have about testing vocabulary.

Nation includes one chapter in each book on vocabulary testing although they do not provide the amount of detail on testing found in Read's text. However, each chapter is focused on questions which teachers may have about vocabulary assessment, making it easier to find answers to specific questions on testing than in Read's book. In Nation's earlier book, he provides many examples of the different types of tests, the different purposes which teachers may have for using vocabulary tests, and the factors which teachers need to consider when measuring vocabulary knowledge. In his later book, Nation focuses most on tests used to measure vocabulary size and the question of how teachers can determine what vocabulary their students know. This may be the most valuable information about vocabulary testing for teachers because determining vocabulary size indicates which types of words students need to learn.

Concluding remarks

The four books reviewed here are complementary, providing some degree of overlap in their subject matter while examining vocabulary from slightly different perspectives. Nation's Learning vocabulary in another language has established itself as the key reference work for scholars who are interested in vocabulary and is likely to remain the point of reference for future work on vocabulary for some time. However, with the large amount of research being done on vocabulary, there will be a need for an updated edition in the near future. Read's book helps to increase awareness of the complex issues involved in testing vocabulary and should continue to be an essential text for anyone interested in researching vocabulary. It may also benefit from an updated edition in the future as new tests of vocabulary such as Nation & Beglar's (2007) Vocabulary Size Test become more common. Schmitt's volume is an important addition to the work on vocabulary as it highlights an area which is just beginning to receive the attention it deserves. Nation's Teaching vocabulary: Strategies and techniques has much more direct value to language teachers as it provides them with a clearly illustrated approach to teaching and learning vocabulary carefully supported by research findings.