Changing Family Structures

Being raised by two fathers is still a relatively rare situation to which people react with curiosity and interest, as did I. However, families with same-sex parents are becoming more common, due to more open social attitudes about couples’ gender composition (Twenge et al., Reference Twenge, Sherman and Wells2015), as well as the increased availability and success of assisted reproductive technology (ART). In vitro fertilization (IVF), introduced in the United Kingdom in 1978, and the United States in 1981, was originally developed to assist childless heterosexual couples have children (Cohen et al., Reference Cohen, Trounson, Dawson, Jones, Hazekamp, Nygren and Hamberger2005). More recently, it has become increasingly sought by gay couples; adoption was the more common method of choice in the past, especially for males. Recent statistics reveal an estimated 823,000 same-sex married couples in the United States, of which 53% are female and 47% are male (Sears et al., Reference Sears, Cisneros and Mallory2025). Approximately 24% of female couples have biological children, in contrast with 8% of male couples. Interestingly, a Canadian study showed a 21-fold increase in the number of same-sex male couples and single men having families via ART between 2003 and 2013. Of the 25 deliveries during that 10-year period, eight twin pairs were born, and all pairs had different fathers. In other words, each father contributed sperm responsible for the conception of one twin, replaying the natural reproductive process of superfecundation (Segal, Reference Segalin press) — as did the couple in Gay Fathers, Twin Sons (Segal, Reference Segal2023). Twins conceived in this way are genetic half-siblings, sharing an average of half their maternal genes by descent, but none of their paternal genes.

Three Lives

Like most higher order multiples, the triplets that are the focus of this article were delivered early by approximately two and one half months. T1M weighed 4 pounds, 12 ounces, T2F weighed 4 pounds, eight ounces, and T3M weighed 5 pounds, 5 ounces. Their early arrival necessitated a 3-week stay in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit for T2F and 4-week stays for both brothers. Her parents told her that after entering her new home, T2F seemed to be searching for something and cried easily. However, when her brothers arrived, her searching and crying ceased, observations similar to those reported by parents whose twins were separated for periods of time, due to medical or other reasons, but sometimes due to the death of one twin. However, there is no such thing as intrauterine knowledge of being a twin or triplet — studies of reared-apart twins show that they had no knowledge of having been born a twin until they were told or discovered a twin sibling by chance. We do know that twins can have physical contact with each other while in the womb (Piontelli, Reference Piontelli2002), but we do not know if there are enduring behavioral effects from such associations. Moreover, fetuses are sedated while in the womb (Lagercrantz & Changeux, Reference Lagercrantz and Changeux2009).

The triplets, T1M, T2F, and T3M, are now 21 years of age, born on March 27, 2005. T2F. T2F is majoring in psychology with plans to attend medical school and specialize in psychiatry. She began her higher educational career by attending a junior college, then transferred to my 4-year college after earning her Associate of Arts (A.A.) degree in the customary two years. Growing up with two fathers felt normal to her; she did not think about having a mother, although an aunt lived with the family and helped raise the children while their parents worked. Having her brothers close by meant that she never felt lonely — she explained that their constant presence did not compel her to seek validation from companions because she had ‘best friends’ all along. T2F described herself as a ‘tomboy’, a behavioral style she attributes to her brothers’ influences and her lack of a female role model once past childhood. Of course, there is the additional possibility that her behavior is linked, in part, to prenatal exposure to male hormones; however, the twin testosterone transfer (TTT) hypothesis remains controversial and may not affect all developmental traits (Ahrenfeldt et al., Reference Ahrenfeldt, Christensen, Segal and Hur2020; also see Richards et al., Reference Richards, Segal and Nguyen2026).

Interestingly, T2F has been given greater freedom than T1M and T3M to do what she chooses, while her brothers have stricter rules to follow. Most importantly, T2F thinks of her family as ‘normal’ and ‘ordinary’ — she has never experienced discrimination of any kind because of her atypical family structure. In fact, research shows that the children of gay couples, when compared with the children of heterosexual couples, show no differences in attachment, wellbeing, school grades, or school difficulties. Furthermore, children of gay couples are higher in compassion, tolerance, and resilience. Some children of gay couples experience social-interactional problems, but that is becoming less common as more gay couples have biological children of their own (Bliss & Harris, Reference Bliss and Harris1999; Bos et al., Reference Bos, Rothblum, Carone, Koh and Gartrell2025; Patterson, Reference Patterson, Osofsky, Fitzgerald, Keren and Puura2024). In families of gay couples, as well as in families created by transparents and single mothers, or families created via donor conception and surrogacy, we find well-adjusted children, positive parenting, and warm and supportive parent-child relationships (Imrie & Golombok, Reference Imrie and Golombok2020). I suspect that this is due, in part, to children being truly wanted by their parents, who withstand significant physical, emotional, and financial challenges to have them.

T1M

T1M attends a junior college (not the same one as T2F had, or T3M does). He was unsure as to what year he was in — he explained that he was misguided when it came to counseling, pursuing several A.A. degrees simultaneously. He is now interested in biochemistry and plans to transfer to a 4-year college to obtain a B.A. degree in that subject.

T1M believes that being a triplet is neither ordinary nor extraordinary — ‘It just means that I never had to deal with the loneliness of being an only child.’ He dates realization of his triplet status to the elementary school years, explaining that not having a mother was something he could not address when people asked him how that felt. Having two dads was ‘simply what it was. It’s not like I really experienced anything else.’ His classmates never teased him about his family situation — people were just ‘curious’. I wondered how his parents explained their family circumstances to him and to his siblings, but he claims they never did. ‘I think we just kind of pieced it together pretty well.’ When he was in middle school, T1M knew other children who were raised in similar situations, but mostly with two mothers.

T1M gets along well with his co-triplets without feeling closer to one or the other. He feels somewhat closer to one of his fathers, explaining that he is more like him than he is to his other father. Neither parent confuses one son for the other.

T3M

T3M is enrolled in a junior college and plans to transfer to a 4-year institution to major in conservation biology. He also works part-time as a clerk in a supermarket that is part of a large chain of stores. He recalls appreciating his multiple birth status when he was in the fifth grade, at age 10 or 11 years. He mentioned that another DZ triplet set, composed of two females and a male, attended their Spanish immersion school — people he knew thought that being a triplet was ‘cool’. When his communications professor at his junior college learned he was a triplet, he asked T3M to bring his brother to class, but T1M refused. He feels special because of his higher order multiple birth status, but it is not a feeling he experiences often. He says the triplets are friends when they are all together, and friends when they are in pairs — but then it is usually two against one.

T3M knows that his parenting situation differs from that of his classmates — other children had mothers, so when Mother’s Day approached, students made gifts for their mothers in class. This caused T3M to wonder ‘Why am I doing this?’ He regards having two fathers as just ‘a fact of life’ that does not daunt him — he also referenced peers raised by two mothers and peers raised by single gay parents. He described his fathers as ‘great parents’, insisting that he loves them both. At the same time, T3M believes he shares more interests and activities with one parent than the other, such as playing sports and working out at the gym. He believes this difference comes from talking more with that parent — of course, their matched behavioral tendencies, partly due to genetic factors, could be driving the greater communication in that relationship (Segal, Reference Segalin press). T3M sees physical similarities between himself and his two co-triplets, but does not know (or would not say) whether all three triplets are biologically related to just one parent, or whether he and his siblings are variously biologically related to a different father. It does not matter.

Parent 1 (P1)

P1 is 66 years of age. He earned a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) degree in General Studies and currently directs sales and marketing for a major hotel line. When I asked him to explain the events behind having biological children, he traced the circuitous route that led to that decision. After he and his partner had been together for several years, they began by fostering several children at different times with the intention to adopt. However, some children were problematic and a biological mother wanted visitation rights, but she did not fulfill her obligations. They also encountered discrimination from a social worker who was uncomfortable with placing a child in a home with gay parents. About 8 months later they decided to seek an egg donor and surrogate to have children of their own after first becoming legally wed. They found both women through a surrogacy organization, and everything proceeded well. The surrogate, who has since relocated to another state, visits the family occasionally ‘but she is not part of the family’.

P1 and P2 initially planned to have the two healthiest embryos transferred to the uterus of their surrogate, but they agreed to transfer three at the urgings of their physician. The triplets were conceived in 2005, when the odds of successful implantation, gestation, and delivery were less certain than they are today. The chance of a positive outcome following the transfer of a single embryo is now much higher, although the transfer number and success rate can vary with the surrogate’s age and health history. The surrogate in the triplet’s case had had three previous children of her own and agreed to the triple embryo transfer. I asked if both fathers were involved in the conceptions, but P1 indicated that such information is not widely shared. ‘They are still our kids equally,’ he insisted.

P1 sees similarities between himself and his children, especially when it comes to sports. All three triplets have been involved in athletics: T1M has played tennis, T2F has played volleyball, and T3M has played football. In some ways he and his spouse were differentially involved with the triplets when they were growing up, explaining that the two fathers had very different work schedules. However, he also saw different behavioral tendencies in the children, some that lasted — T1M was outgoing but has grown more subdued as an adult; T2F was (and is) competitive and outgoing; while T3M was quiet and stubborn. P1 admits to his own competitive streak. P1 also observed that his children have been treated differently by their parents and by others because of their different personalities — in saying this, he captured the concept of reactive gene-environment correlation. He feels a certain bond with T1M and T2F who still play sports, whereas T3M no longer does. P1 does not recognize assortative cross-parenting in his children, a concept I developed to describe the affinity a parent feels when they see their partner’s traits expressed in a child (Segal, Reference Segal2024). P1 considers himself to be the more disciplinary parent and his partner to be the more permissive of the two.

Other than their social worker, P1 recalls no discrimination directed toward his family because of their unusual parenting — ‘We had nothing but acceptance.’ He admits to some surprise at this situation since the family lived in a rural area when the triplets were young — he and his spouse (P2) expected attitudes to be more conventional and rejecting than in large cities. Instead, he recalls his children’s friends remarking how ‘cool’ it is to have two dads — and friends of his are also having children the way he did. P1 never thought he would be a father, but it was an experience he came to desire. An especially happy memory was the first time he took his children to church — it was Father’s Day, and he stood up and cried.

Parent 2 (P2)

P2 was born on September 12, 1965, making him exactly 61 years of age on the day of our interview. He earned a master’s (M.A.) degree in business management and is a semi-retired insurance broker, one of several positions he has held over the years. Following the couple’s difficulties in fostering and adoption (described above), he and P1 chose to have biological children via IVF — they realized that once an egg donor and surrogate were found they might have a child in less than one year, faster than if they had continued with fostering and adoption. As indicated above, they had hoped for twins, one boy and one girl, until their medical staff persuaded them to transfer the 3 healthiest embryos of the 11 that were available. ‘There was definitely a level of excitement,’ at that time.

Like P1, P2 recalls no unkind words or stares from the members of their rural community where the triplets were raised. He did say that one of his daughter’s classmates asked her how it was possible to have two dads, and who would wear the dress? — his daughter found the question amusing. P2 also noticed a large number of twins and older parents in the area, which makes sense since older parents are more likely than younger parents to seek reproductive assistance with its elevated chance of producing multiples. His children were the second set of triplets at their school; in fact, there were at least seven other couples that had had twins, or had adopted a child, followed by the birth of another child. Interestingly, he added that it seemed more unusual to find African American families where they lived, compared with twins, triplets, and gay couples.

Families seeking an egg donor often choose one based on certain preferences. In this family, a red-headed donor was sought, which is because red hair is a trait that is often expressed by members of P2’s biological family. The donor they initially identified had many desirable physical and behavioral qualities, but she also had an alcoholic father. Not wishing to introduce this genetically influenced tendency into the children they were creating, the couple opted for a high school athlete, focused on elementary education and family ties. Recall that all three triplets have been, or are, athletes and all three relish family relationships. When we spoke over Zoom, the parents and children had finished celebrating P2’s birthday with a special breakfast.

Comment

Families with gay parents are not yet ordinary, but they are becoming less extraordinary. IVF, developed to assist childless heterosexual couples have children, is becoming the preferred route to a family for gay male couples, probably because gay marriages and unions are becoming more frequent. As indicated above, a Canadian study reported a 21-fold increase in the number of gay male couples and single men using reproductive services between 2003 and 2013. A more recent retrospective survey of 60−78 international gay male couples examined the difficulty ratings regarding decisions to have IVF: 67.1%, ‘not difficult’; 19.7%, ‘somewhat difficult’; and 13.2%, ‘very or extremely difficult’. Conceiving twins was ‘important’ or ‘very important’ to 52.3% of couples, with 60 couples evenly divided as to the importance of conceiving a child related to both partners: 40%, ‘not important’; 10.8%, ‘somewhat important’; and 49.2%, ‘important or very important’ (Lindheim et al., Reference Lindheim, Madeira, Ludwin, Kemner, Parry, Sylvestre and Pennings2019).

Research shows that children born to gay male and female couples, as well as to single mothers, and/or via egg donation and surrogacy do not differ from children born in traditional households (Imrie & Golombok, Reference Imrie and Golombok2020). These outcomes are evidence of human adaptability and resilience — the capacity to thrive under varied circumstances as long as children are given love, resources, and protection.

Twin-Related Publications on Suicide — Dr Alec Roy

Roy, A., Segal, N. L., Centerwall, B., & Robinette, D. (1991). Suicide in twins. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 29−32. (cited in Harvard Mental Health Letter, July 1991, p. 7).

Roy, A., Segal, N. L., & Sarchiapone, M. (1995). Attempted suicide among living co-twins of twin suicide victims. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 1075−1076.

Segal, N. L., & Roy, A. (1995). Suicide attempts in twins whose co-twins’ deaths were non-suicides. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 937−940.

Segal, N. L., & Roy, A. (1998). Twin research perspective on suicide and suicidal attempts. In D. De Leo, A. Schmidtke, & R. F. W. Diekstra, (Eds.), Suicide prevention: A holistic approach (pp. 53−61). Kluwer.

Roy, A., Nielsen, D., Rylander, G., Sarchiapone, M., & Segal, N. (1999). Genetics of suicide in depression. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60, 12−17.

Segal, N. L., & Roy, A. (2001). Suicidal attempts and ideation in twins whose co-twins’ deaths were non-suicides: Replication and elaboration. Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 445−452.

Roy, A., & Segal, N. L. (2001). Suicidal behavior in twins: A replication. Journal of Affective Disorders, 66, 71−74.

Twin Study of Dog Ownership

The News, Views, and Comments column is generally reserved for current research, but I discovered an intriguing, somewhat older study to bring to the attention of TR&HG readers (Fall et al., Reference Fall, Kuja-Halkola, Dobney, Westgarth and Magnusson2019). The study presented evidence of substantial genetic effects on dog ownership, with implications for domestication and health. The final twin sample, drawn from the Swedish Twin Registry, included 85,542 twins from 50,507 twin pairs. Zygosity was assessed by within-pair similarities, supplemented by classification of a subset of twins by DNA testing. Heritability estimates were 57% for females and 51% for males. Having a dog as a child was associated with having a dog as an adult; however, shared environmental influences were evident only during early adulthood. It was suggested that the observed genetic variation may have added to human ability to domesticate dogs. It was also suggested that reported relationships between owning a dog and enjoying better health should be further explored.

Twinning Rates in Awassi Ewes

A study of twinning frequency in groups of Awassi ewes was undertaken by Khazaal et al. (Reference Khazaal, Alghetaa, Al-Shuhaib, Al-Thuwaini and Alkhammas2023). Ewes with exon 2 genotypes CC, CA, and AA were identified, as was a novel single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) with an effect on oxytocin. Analysis showed that twinning was lower in ewes with genotypes CC and CA, relative to the wild type CC. The investigators asserted that their results promise to increase the reproductive potential of Awassi ewes. However, their work is also of interest to human researchers hoping to identify genetic factors linked to DZ twinning.

MZ Male Twins With Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy

A pair of 10-year-old MZ male twins who were diagnosed with mitochondrial encephalomyopathy (ME), accompanied by lactic acidemia and strike-like episodes (MELAS), was described by Rabinowitz and Enerbäck (Reference Rabinowitz and Enerbäck2020). ME is a maternally inherited mitochondrial condition due to mutations in mitochondrial DNA — most common is the 3243A>G variant. The twins’ mother was an asymptomatic carrier. (Lactate is a metabolic waste product, and lactic acidosis is the excess buildup of lactate in the blood; see Pelley, Reference Pelley2011; Rabinowitz & Enerbäck, Reference Rabinowitz and Enerbäck2020). Both twins had a history of progressive neurological and multisystemic problems, consistent with a metabolic disorder. The twins did not show all the same symptoms — since the age of 10 years, the older twin experienced seizures, blurred vision, hypertrichosis (excessive hair growth on any part of the body; see ColumbiaDoctors, 2026), exercise intolerance and learning difficulties, while the younger twin was seen at the hospital following sudden binaural hearing loss and tinnitus at age 12 years. He was admitted to the hospital 3 months later, having experienced seizures several months earlier and sudden-onset epilepticus (seizures lasting longer than 5 minutes; Epilepsy Foundation, 2026). This case underscores the variable expression of MELAS, which can be misdiagnosed (Wu et al., Reference Wu, Wang and Kong2026). Genetic testing is warranted for identification and treatment. A caveat is that the method of zygosity determination was not specified.

Twin Study of Meditation

A pilot study conducted to identify body changes before and during an intensive 7-day meditation retreat was reported by Zuniga-Hertz et al. (Reference Zuniga-Hertz, Simpson, Chitetti, Hsu, Huang, Jinich-Diamant, Chernov, Onton, Cuomo, Dispenza, Davis, Christov-Moore, Reggente, Gu, Kong, Bonds, Maree, Simonson, Ahn and Patel2025). Analyses focused on RNA from whole blood, cytokines (signaling proteins that help control bodily inflammation; see Cleveland Clinic, 2023) and metabolites from blood plasma, heart rate dynamics, and brain activity. Data were gathered at different time points: when twins meditated together, meditated apart, or when one twin meditated and the co-twin listened to a documentary. Six twin pairs (5 MZ and 1 DZ) participated, but unfortunately, zygosity classification was not explained; nontwin participants were used for comparative purposes. The main findings were that (1) twin pairs were similar across measures prior to the retreat, (2) twins diverged at the mid-point of the study, (3) twins showed significant similarity when separated and only one twin meditated, and (4) the foregoing similarities were not observed in unrelated pairs. Finding (3) was unexpected — the investigators suggested that co-twins become more connected in a meditation situation. Of course, the sample size was small and the study requires replication.

Twins With Two Parental Sets

The birth of twins with unrelated biological parents has captured attention worldwide (Smee, Reference Smee2026). In April 2025, an Australian woman unable to conceive, and her partner created an embryo that was transferred to the uterus of a surrogate. Two weeks later, two fetuses were identified — it happened that the surrogate had become pregnant without medical assistance at about the same time as the transfer. Each set of parents has been raising their biological male infant, with plans to remain in touch. However, this case, set in Queensland, raised an important and unanticipated legal issue since birth siblings born from surrogacy are prevented from being separated. This case necessitated a new law, recognizing the two infants as ‘gestational twins’, not as birth siblings, to accommodate this rare situation.

Twins Born in Different Years

Twin boys, Ezra and Ezekial, were born in different years at the Virtua Voorhees Hospital, in Voorhees Township, New Jersey (NBC10 Philadelphia, 2024). Ezra arrived at 11:48 pm on New Years’ Eve, 2023 (sharing his birthday with his father), while Ezekial arrived at 00:28 am on New Year’s Day, 2024. The family was amused because their twins have an unusual birthday story to tell. However, their different birth dates and years may bring unexpected difficulties and confusion linked to school entry, deadline submissions, hospital records, and/or other matters.

A Valedictorian−Salutatorian Pair

Identical twins, Ella and Eva Paddock, from Colorado Springs, Colorado, graduated at the top of their class of 2026 — Ella was valedictorian and Eva was salutatorian of Vista Ridge High School (Chavez, Reference Chavez2026). The twins trace their success to supporting each other through study sessions, assignments, and various school-related stresses. They claim they were never rivals, something that other people find surprising. When Eva learned that her sister had earned the top honor, she said, ‘Ella was, and still is, the most deserving person I know to become valedictorian, including compared to myself.’ The twins will attend Colorado State University in Colorado Springs. Ella plans to major in nutrition and dietetics, and Eva plans to major in biomedical engineering. The twins did not say whether they plan to be roommates, but that would be of interest to other twins about to attend college. There is surprisingly little research on the factors affecting twins’ college choices.

Highlights From the Annual Twins Days Festival

The annual Twins Days Festival, in Twinsburg, Ohio, took place from August 7 to 9, 2026 (Zein & Fecto, Reference Zein and Fecto2026). The event attracts twins from across the United States and around the world. The festival is an opportunity for twins to gather in celebration of their twinship. It also offers scientists a chance to gather a great deal of data in a short time and in a single location. However, twins attending the festival tend to be identical and to emphasize their resemblance, so they may not be a representative sampling of identical twins, in general. Here are several comments expressed by the twins, revealing the depth of their relationship, the nature of their twinship, and an unusual advantage of being part of an identical pair: ‘My favorite part of being a twin is just knowing that I always have her, and like I can always say it’s two against the world.’ ‘Coming here just kind of reminds you how cool it is to be a twin and special.’ ‘She couldn’t finish her class. She got pregnant and so I finished it for her. I got her from a D to B, and the teacher never caught on.’ A research study that took place at the 2026 festival is described immediately below.

FBI Identical Twin Identification Dilemmas

Every year for the past 15 years, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has partnered with West Virginia University in studies of individual identification (FBI News, 2026). Measures of interest are fingerprints, the iris, and facial recognition. Identical twins pose a particular challenge to the investigators, whose aim is to decide what distinguishes one person from another. A unique feature of their study is its longitudinal design, made possible by the fact that many twins attend the events on a yearly basis — this allows insights into how identification methods may change in accuracy over time. Real life applications include access to personal electronic devices and testing the efficacy of new procedures prior to their release.

Identical Twin Doctors

Drs Travan and Travis Jasper are the only twins now heading a hospital department (emergency medicine) in the health system’s capital division, which includes 18 hospitals in New Hampshire and Virginia (Yu, Reference Yu2026). Travis commented, ‘We’ve both been very effective directors and leaders at separate hospitals but we both have had the similar thing, that we had each other.’ They assumed these roles in August 2026 at the HCA Healthcare’s Chippenham Hospital, in Richmond, Virginia. The 56-year-old twins, raised in Richmond, were co-valedictorians at their high school before attending college and medical school together. They share their medical experiences with one another as a way of learning. The twins say they are competitive, but highly supportive of one another, never doubting their ability to work together successfully. I have looked closely at the ingredients of effective twin collaborations, described in my forthcoming book, Twinship: What Twin Ties Reveal About Relationships (Segal, Reference Segalin press).