2.1 Governing equations

The governing equations modelling reactive flow consist of the compressible Navier–Stokes equations augmented with a one-step irreversible chemical reaction. The full set of equations, written in terms of non-dimensional quantities, reads

(2.1) $$\begin{eqnarray}\displaystyle & \displaystyle {\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}t}}=-\unicode[STIX]{x1D735}\boldsymbol{\cdot }(\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}\boldsymbol{u}), & \displaystyle\end{eqnarray}$$

(2.2) $$\begin{eqnarray}\displaystyle & \displaystyle {\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}\boldsymbol{u}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}t}}=-\unicode[STIX]{x1D735}\boldsymbol{\cdot }(\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}\boldsymbol{u}\otimes \boldsymbol{u})-\unicode[STIX]{x1D735}P+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{Re}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D735}\boldsymbol{\cdot }\unicode[STIX]{x1D749}, & \displaystyle\end{eqnarray}$$

(2.3) $$\begin{eqnarray}\displaystyle & \displaystyle {\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}E}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}t}}=-\unicode[STIX]{x1D735}\boldsymbol{\cdot }(\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}\boldsymbol{u}E)+{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FB}^{2}T}{(\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}-1)PrReMa^{2}}}-\unicode[STIX]{x1D735}\boldsymbol{\cdot }(P\boldsymbol{u})+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{Re}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D735}\boldsymbol{\cdot }(\unicode[STIX]{x1D749}\boldsymbol{\cdot }\boldsymbol{u})+{\mathcal{Q}}^{\prime }\dot{\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}_{f}, & \displaystyle\end{eqnarray}$$

(2.4) $$\begin{eqnarray}\displaystyle & \displaystyle {\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}Y}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}t}}=-\unicode[STIX]{x1D735}\boldsymbol{\cdot }(\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}\boldsymbol{u}Y)-\dot{\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}_{f}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\text{Le}PrRe}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D735}\boldsymbol{\cdot }(\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}\unicode[STIX]{x1D735}Y). & \displaystyle\end{eqnarray}$$

In the derivation of these equations (Poinsot & Veynante Reference Poinsot and Veynante2012), the dimensional variables, denoted with a hat, have been rendered non-dimensional using the reference quantities listed in table 1. This scaling produces five dimensionless parameters, also listed in table 1, that govern the flow, acoustics and reaction dynamics.

Table 1.

Definitions of the non-dimensional variables and parameters. The reference temperature $T_{0}$ , density $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}_{0}$ , velocity $U$ and mass fractions $Y_{0}$ stem from the values of the fresh gas in the inlet tube. Even though the mass fraction ${\hat{Y}}$ is already non-dimensional, dividing by the values in the fresh gases ensures that the new variable $Y$ ranges from one in the fresh gases to zero in the burnt gases. The constant $C_{P}$ denotes the heat capacity at constant pressure, $\unicode[STIX]{x1D707}$ represents the dynamic viscosity, $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}$ is the thermal conductivity and $D$ stands for the diffusion coefficient. The radii $r_{in}$ and $r_{out}$ in the swirl number definition are the non-dimensional inner and outer radii of the inlet annulus, respectively.

Equations (2.1) and (2.2) represent conservation of mass and momentum, respectively. Owing to compressibility, we require an energy equation (2.3) which we take to be an equation for the total non-chemical energy,

(2.5) $$\begin{eqnarray}E={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\boldsymbol{u}\boldsymbol{\cdot }\boldsymbol{u}+{\displaystyle \frac{P}{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}(\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}-1)}},\end{eqnarray}$$

given by the sum of the kinetic and internal energies per unit mass. The constant ${\mathcal{Q}}^{\prime }$ in (2.3) is the heat release per unit mass of fuel. The fuel mass fraction $Y$ evolves according to (2.4), and the reaction rate is explicitly given through an Arrhenius law

(2.6) $$\begin{eqnarray}\dot{\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}_{f}=A\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}Y_{0}Y\exp (-T_{a}/T),\end{eqnarray}$$

where $T_{a}$ is the activation temperature and $A$ is the Arrhenius constant.

In order to obtain the equations in this form, several assumptions had to be made. The reaction is taken to be very lean, hence only the fuel mass fraction $Y$ is required when calculating the reaction rate. The heat capacities of all species are assumed to be identical, and the gas is taken to be perfect, which establishes a relation between the pressure and the temperature. In our non-dimensional variables, this relation reads

(2.7) $$\begin{eqnarray}P={\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}T}{\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}Ma^{2}}}.\end{eqnarray}$$

We further assume that the heat capacities, the Prandtl number and the Lewis number are constants with respect to temperature, but we allow the Reynolds number to vary according to Sutherland’s law for the viscosity (Sutherland Reference Sutherland1893). The diffusion coefficients of both species are taken to be equal, allowing us to use Fick’s law (Fick Reference Fick1995) to simplify the diffusion velocities in (2.4).

2.2 Numerical details

The numerical implementation of the above governing equations follows the outline given in Garnaud (Reference Garnaud2012) and Blanchard (Reference Blanchard2015), but is augmented to allow for swirling flows and three-dimensionality (non-zero azimuthal wavenumbers) in the linearised equations. It uses higher-order upwinded low-dissipation explicit schemes for the spatial derivatives (Berland et al. Reference Berland, Bogey, Marsden and Bailly2007), Krylov subspace time stepping and a zonal domain decomposition technique for parallelising the calculations.

Figure 1 shows the numerical domain, which is divided into two distinct subregions. Region $0$ consists of an inlet annulus through which fresh gases propagate to region $1$ , a cylindrical combustion chamber. The central rod has radius $r_{in}$ and protrudes into region 1 by an amount $x_{rod}$ . The outer boundary of the inlet tube is at $r=r_{out}$ . Owing to the nature of the geometry, cylindrical polar coordinates are used, adopting the formulation given by Sandberg (Reference Sandberg2007).

For simplicity we recast the non-dimensional governing equations into

(2.8) $$\begin{eqnarray}{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\boldsymbol{q}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}t}}=\boldsymbol{{\mathcal{N}}}(\boldsymbol{q}),\end{eqnarray}$$

where $\boldsymbol{{\mathcal{N}}}$ represents the right-hand side of (2.1)–(2.4) in conservative form, and the state $\boldsymbol{q}$ consists of the dynamic quantities $(\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C},\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}u_{x},\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}u_{r},\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}u_{\unicode[STIX]{x1D703}},\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}E,\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}Y)^{\text{T}}$ . Locally one-dimensional inviscid (LODI) boundary conditions (Poinsot & Lele Reference Poinsot and Lele1992) are used for an inflow boundary condition in region $0$ , where fresh gases are being injected, and as an outflow condition in region $1$ to ensure an open combustion area with minimal wave reflections from the computational boundary. The absence of wave reflections has been checked by varying the downstream boundaries by one non-dimensional unit and recalculating the optimal gain for $S=0,~m=0,~\mathit{St}=4.21$ : a relative change in the optimal gain by ${\approx}0.1\,\%$ has been found, demonstrating that wave reflection from the edge of the computational domain does not significantly impact our analysis.

Figure 1.

Sketch of the computational domain consisting of an annular inflow region (region $0$ ) and an open combustion region (region $1$ ). LODI boundary conditions are used at the inlet and the open boundaries of region $1$ .

A nonlinear solver determines an equilibrium solution to the axisymmetric version of (2.8), i.e. with $\unicode[STIX]{x2202}_{\unicode[STIX]{x1D703}}\equiv 0$ . During this solution process, selective frequency damping (Åkervik et al. Reference Åkervik, Brandt, Henningson, Hœpffner, Marxen and Schlatter2006) is used for convergence acceleration. We denote these axisymmetric base-flow solutions by $\boldsymbol{q}_{0}$ with $\boldsymbol{{\mathcal{N}}}(\boldsymbol{q}_{0})=0$ . Based on these equilibrium states, we investigate the linear dynamics of swirling flames by considering perturbations about $\boldsymbol{q}_{0}$ . To this end, we linearise the nonlinear operator $\boldsymbol{{\mathcal{N}}}(\boldsymbol{q})$ about the base flow $\boldsymbol{q}_{0}$ to find the governing linear operator.

While the base flow is taken as axisymmetric, we allow for non-axisymmetric disturbances by considering flow fields of the form $\boldsymbol{q}(t,x,r,\unicode[STIX]{x1D703})=\boldsymbol{q}_{0}(x,r)+\boldsymbol{q}^{\prime }(t,x,r)\text{e}^{\text{i}m\unicode[STIX]{x1D703}}$ , where we have Fourier-transformed the linear variable $\boldsymbol{q}^{\prime }$ in the $\unicode[STIX]{x1D703}$ direction, introducing the integer azimuthal wavenumber $m$ . The full linear (discretised) operator $\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}$ is given by

(2.9) $$\begin{eqnarray}\left.{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\boldsymbol{{\mathcal{N}}}(\boldsymbol{q})}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\boldsymbol{q}}}\right|_{\boldsymbol{q}=\boldsymbol{q}_{0}}(\boldsymbol{q}^{\prime }\text{e}^{\text{i}m\unicode[STIX]{x1D703}})=\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}(\boldsymbol{q}^{\prime }\text{e}^{\text{i}m\unicode[STIX]{x1D703}}).\end{eqnarray}$$

It will prove useful to instead consider the linear operator for azimuthal mode $m$ directly by writing $\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}(\boldsymbol{q}^{\prime }\text{e}^{\text{i}m\unicode[STIX]{x1D703}})=\text{e}^{\text{i}m\unicode[STIX]{x1D703}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}\boldsymbol{q}^{\prime }$ , i.e.  $\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}$ stands for the linear operator with azimuthal $\unicode[STIX]{x1D703}$ derivatives replaced by $\text{i}m$ multiplications. For our subsequent analysis, the linear operator adjoint to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}$ is required. This latter operator $\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}^{\text{H}}$ and the direct operator $\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}$ are not explicitly formed (nor derived), but are rather defined by their action on respective flow fields via an automatic differentiation approach directly applied to the nonlinear routines; see Fosas de Pando, Sipp & Schmid (Reference Fosas de Pando, Sipp and Schmid2012) for details. The resulting operator $\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}$ has been checked to be consistent with the nonlinear operator by a finite-difference scheme.

Table 2.

The centreline boundary conditions for single-valued and multi-valued quantities for different azimuthal wavenumbers $m$ .

An important component in the linearised equations for each azimuthal mode is in the centreline boundary condition. In region $1$ at $r=0$ , the numerical implementation encounters a coordinate singularity. To correctly attend to this singularity, a staggered mesh is employed, thus avoiding a grid point directly at $r=0$ . Radial derivatives near $r=0$ are then evaluated by enforcing a symmetry condition across the centreline (Mohseni & Colonius Reference Mohseni and Colonius2000). The form of this symmetry condition is dependent on the azimuthal wavenumber $m$ under consideration (Constantinescu & Lele Reference Constantinescu and Lele2002). At the centreline, state variables fall into two categories: single-valued variables such as $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}$ , $u_{x}$ , $Y$ and $E$ , and multi-valued quantities such as $u_{r}$ and $u_{\unicode[STIX]{x1D703}}$ . The correct symmetry conditions for the continuation of these variables across the centreline are given in table 2.

2.3 Numerical optimal gains

The analysis of the swirling M-flame revolves around the concept of a frequency response or transfer function. To this end, we harmonically perturb the governing equations with a small force $\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}\,\boldsymbol{f}(x,r)$  ( $\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}\ll 0$ ) at an azimuthal wavenumber $m$ and temporal frequency $\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}$ ,

(2.10) $$\begin{eqnarray}{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\boldsymbol{q}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}t}}=\boldsymbol{{\mathcal{N}}}(\boldsymbol{q})+\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}\,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\text{e}^{\text{i}m\unicode[STIX]{x1D703}}\text{e}^{\text{i}\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}t},\end{eqnarray}$$

and seek solutions in the form $\boldsymbol{q}(t,x,r,\unicode[STIX]{x1D703})=\boldsymbol{q}_{0}(x,r)+\boldsymbol{q}_{m}^{\prime }(t,x,r)\text{e}^{\text{i}m\unicode[STIX]{x1D703}}$ . Substituting this expression into (2.10) and separating out orders in $\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}$ , we obtain for the first two orders ( $\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}^{0}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}^{1}$ )

(2.11a ) $$\begin{eqnarray}\displaystyle \boldsymbol{{\mathcal{N}}}(\boldsymbol{q}_{0}) & = & \displaystyle 0,\end{eqnarray}$$

(2.11b ) $$\begin{eqnarray}\displaystyle {\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\boldsymbol{q}_{m}^{\prime }}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}t}} & = & \displaystyle \unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}\boldsymbol{q}_{m}^{\prime }+\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\text{e}^{\text{i}\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}t}.\end{eqnarray}$$

$\boldsymbol{q}_{0}$

$m$

$\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}$

$\boldsymbol{q}_{m}^{\prime }$

$\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}$

$\boldsymbol{q}_{m}^{\prime }(t,x,r)=\bar{\boldsymbol{q}}_{m}(t,x,r)\text{e}^{\text{i}\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}t}$

$\bar{\boldsymbol{q}}_{m}$

$\boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}(x,r)=\bar{\boldsymbol{q}}_{m}(t\rightarrow \infty ,x,r)$

(2.12) $$\begin{eqnarray}{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\bar{\boldsymbol{q}}_{m}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}t}}+\text{i}\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}\bar{\boldsymbol{q}}_{m}=\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}\bar{\boldsymbol{q}}_{m}+\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}},\end{eqnarray}$$

which is obtained by substituting the above expression for $\boldsymbol{q}_{m}^{\prime }$ into (2.11b ) and cancelling the exponential terms. Equation (2.12) presents a concise and computationally efficient way to obtain the driven response $\boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}(x,r)=\unicode[STIX]{x1D64D}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}$ given by the resolvent matrix $\unicode[STIX]{x1D64D}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}=(\text{i}\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}\unicode[STIX]{x1D644}-\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m})^{-1}$ .

The resolvent represents the transfer function that links a forcing shape $\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}$ to its driven response $\boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}$ at frequency $\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}$ . We could choose a specific forcing shape and investigate the corresponding output and gain, defined as $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}=\Vert \boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\Vert /\Vert \,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\Vert$ for some norm $\Vert \cdot \Vert$ , but instead we seek the forcing that maximises the gain for a given frequency. In this manner, not only do we obtain the maximum possible gain for our system, but also, by investigating the structures of the forcing and output, we gain insight into dominant mechanisms that underly this amplification and exploit various processes (of hydrodynamic, acoustic, reactive type, or a combination thereof) within the full system.

For a measure of disturbance size, we choose the Chu norm (Chu Reference Chu1965), a compressible energy-based norm, and modify it to include reactive terms (see Blanchard Reference Blanchard2015). We have

(2.13) $$\begin{eqnarray}\Vert \boldsymbol{q}\Vert ^{2}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\unicode[STIX]{x03C0}}}\iiint _{\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FA}}\left[\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}_{0}|\boldsymbol{u}^{\prime }|^{2}+{\displaystyle \frac{P_{0}|\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}^{\prime }|^{2}}{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}_{0}^{2}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}_{0}^{2}(|T^{\prime }|^{2}+|Q^{\prime }Ma^{2}(\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}-1)Y_{0}Y^{\prime }|^{2})}{\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{2}(\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}-1)Ma^{4}P_{0}}}\right]\text{d}V,\end{eqnarray}$$

with $\text{d}V=r\,\text{d}r\,\text{d}x\,\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D703}$ . Choosing an appropriate norm is a crucial step in our analysis, since all computed gains are dependent on this choice. By selecting a physically motivated norm, we ensure that we obtain physically relevant forcings and thus uncover pertinent mechanisms that describe the overall flame behaviour. The Chu norm, in the form given by (2.13), will allow us to compute the optimal gain by accounting for hydrodynamic, acoustic, thermal or reactive effects, without biasing towards any.

By translating the norm (2.13) into a corresponding weight matrix $\unicode[STIX]{x1D652}$ , we can define our discrete norm $\Vert \cdot \Vert$ as the norm induced by the inner product $\langle \boldsymbol{x},\boldsymbol{y}\rangle _{\unicode[STIX]{x1D652}}=\boldsymbol{x}^{\text{H}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D652}\boldsymbol{y}$ . We then link this norm to the standard vector $2$ -norm by employing a Cholesky decomposition of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D652}=\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}^{\text{H}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}$ . Our optimal gain problem can then be stated as finding the forcing given by

(2.14) $$\begin{eqnarray}\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt}=\underset{\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}}{\text{arg max}}{\displaystyle \frac{\Vert \unicode[STIX]{x1D648}\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{out}\boldsymbol{R}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{in}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}^{-1}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}\,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\Vert _{2}}{\Vert \unicode[STIX]{x1D648}\,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\Vert _{2}}}.\end{eqnarray}$$

In the expression above, we have additionally introduced two windowing matrices $\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{out}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{in}$ . These matrices act as masks to select (or deselect) specific regions of the computational domain or variables of interest for our forcing and output. For our case, we restrict the forcing to the region in the inlet tube with $-2.5\leqslant x\leqslant -0.5$ . The associated response will be confined to the burning area ( $x>0$ ) by appropriately choosing $\boldsymbol{L}_{out}$ . The solution to the above optimisation is obtained by the SVD as follows: the principal singular triplet of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}\boldsymbol{L}_{out}\boldsymbol{R}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\boldsymbol{L}_{in}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}^{-1}$ is $(\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}},\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}\boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt},\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}\,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt})$ , giving the optimal forced response as $\tilde{\boldsymbol{q}}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt}=\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt}$ .

While the above expressions furnish a procedure to analyse the linear dynamics of the swirling M-flame, the computational steps to obtain the resolvent operator and the SVD are prohibitively expensive due to the many degrees of freedom in our discretised system. Instead, we approximate the multiplication of the discrete resolvent matrix with an arbitrary state vector $\boldsymbol{x}$ by the long-time integration of (2.12) with the forcing $\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}=\boldsymbol{x}$ (and the initial condition $\boldsymbol{q}_{m}=0$ ). Likewise, the action of the adjoint resolvent matrix on an adjoint state vector $\boldsymbol{x}^{\dagger }$ is given by the $\bar{\boldsymbol{f}}_{m}^{\dagger }$ component of the long-time integration of the adjoint equation to (2.12), given by

(2.15a ) $$\begin{eqnarray}\displaystyle & \displaystyle {\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\bar{\boldsymbol{q}}_{m}^{\dagger }}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}t}}-\text{i}\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}\bar{\boldsymbol{q}}_{m}^{\dagger }=\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}^{\text{H}}\bar{\boldsymbol{q}}_{m}^{\dagger }, & \displaystyle\end{eqnarray}$$

(2.15b ) $$\begin{eqnarray}\displaystyle & \displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\bar{\boldsymbol{f}}_{m}^{\dagger }}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}t}=\bar{\boldsymbol{q}}_{m}^{\dagger }, & \displaystyle\end{eqnarray}$$

$\bar{\boldsymbol{q}}_{m}^{\dagger }(0)=\boldsymbol{x}^{\dagger }$

$\bar{\boldsymbol{f}}_{m}^{\dagger }(0)=0$

$T$

$T=10$

2.4 Numerical sensitivity analysis

The computation of optimal gains using the direct–adjoint framework presented above, which is equivalent to evaluating the SVD of the resolvent operator, requires a substantial amount of resources. This means that, realistically, only a small number of frequencies can be calculated.

Moreover, one has to keep in mind that all computed gains are parameter-dependent, and, in order to assess the variation of preferred amplification behaviour with changes in one of the governing parameters (recall table 1), many more computations would be necessary. It is thus very important to extract a maximum of information from each calculation, to leverage direct and adjoint solutions, and to fully harness the expended computational effort. To this end, we will formulate a sensitivity-based technique to approximate variations in the frequency response (resolvent norm) with respect to changes in any parameter. This formulation stems from the realisation that adjoint variables are generalised sensitivities or gradients, and expressions for parametric sensitivities can be given in terms of weighted scalar products between the direct and adjoint solutions.

The underlying principle behind the parametric sensitivities is a first-order perturbation approach applied to the SVD with respect to the linearised operator (Fosas de Pando et al. Reference Fosas de Pando, Schmid and Lele2014). We generally have

(2.16) $$\begin{eqnarray}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FF}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}=Re[\boldsymbol{u}^{\text{H}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FF}\unicode[STIX]{x1D646}\boldsymbol{v}],\end{eqnarray}$$

which relates first-order changes in the maximal singular value $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}$ (in our case, the optimal gain) to first-order changes in the underlying matrix $\unicode[STIX]{x1D646}$ , where $(\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E},\boldsymbol{u},\boldsymbol{v})$ stands for the principal singular triplet of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D646}$ . Using this relation with $\unicode[STIX]{x1D646}=\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{out}\unicode[STIX]{x1D64D}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{in}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}^{-1}$ , we can derive the sensitivity with respect to, for example, the forcing frequency $\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}$ according to

(2.17) $$\begin{eqnarray}\displaystyle {\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}} & = & \displaystyle Im[\langle \boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt},\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{out}\unicode[STIX]{x1D64D}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D64D}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{in}\,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt}\rangle _{\unicode[STIX]{x1D652}}].\end{eqnarray}$$

This simplified expression results from the fact that the frequency $\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}$ appears linearly and isolated from the linearised operator $\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}$ .

To evaluate the sensitivity with respect to other parameters, representatively denoted by $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}$ , we use the product rule to obtain

(2.18) $$\begin{eqnarray}\displaystyle {\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}}} & = & \displaystyle Re\left[\left\langle \boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt},\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{out}\unicode[STIX]{x1D64D}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D64D}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{in}\,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt}\right\rangle _{\!\unicode[STIX]{x1D652}}\right]\nonumber\\ \displaystyle & & \displaystyle +\,\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\,Re\left[\left\langle \unicode[STIX]{x1D648}\boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt},{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}}}\boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt}\right\rangle \right]\nonumber\\ \displaystyle & & \displaystyle -\,Re\left[\left\langle \boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt},\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{out}\unicode[STIX]{x1D64D}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{in}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}^{-1}{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}}}\,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt}\right\rangle _{\!\unicode[STIX]{x1D652}}\right].\end{eqnarray}$$

Equation (2.17) indicates that two resolvent calculations are required to determine the sensitivity with respect to the forcing frequency, while (2.18) shows that three resolvent calculations are sufficient to obtain the sensitivity with respect to each parameter. However, by first calculating the two quantities

(2.19a,b ) $$\begin{eqnarray}\unicode[STIX]{x1D753}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{\,f}=\unicode[STIX]{x1D64D}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{in}\,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt},\quad \unicode[STIX]{x1D753}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{q}=\unicode[STIX]{x1D64D}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{\text{H}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{out}^{\text{H}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D652}^{\text{H}}\boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt},\end{eqnarray}$$

followed by rewriting the above sensitivities (2.17) and (2.18) in the form

(2.20) $$\begin{eqnarray}\displaystyle {\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}} & = & \displaystyle Im[\langle \unicode[STIX]{x1D753}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{q},\unicode[STIX]{x1D753}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{\,f}\rangle ],\end{eqnarray}$$

(2.21) $$\begin{eqnarray}\displaystyle {\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}}} & = & \displaystyle Re\left[\left\langle \unicode[STIX]{x1D753}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{q},{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D753}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{\,f}\right\rangle \right]\nonumber\\ \displaystyle & & \displaystyle +\,\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}\,Re\left[\left\langle \unicode[STIX]{x1D648}\boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt},{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}}}\boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt}\right\rangle \right]\nonumber\\ \displaystyle & & \displaystyle -\,Re\left[\left\langle \unicode[STIX]{x1D753}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{q},\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{in}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}^{-1}{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}}}\,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt}\right\rangle \right]\!,\end{eqnarray}$$

we can reduce the number of resolvent calculations to just two for the sensitivity with respect to any parameter, namely the resolvent calculations contained in $\unicode[STIX]{x1D753}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{\,f}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D753}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{q}$ . We identify the three terms of (2.21) as the variation in singular value $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}$ due to changes in (i) the governing linear operator, (ii) the norm of the output and (iii) the norm of the input, respectively.

The derivatives of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}$ are approximated by simple first-order finite differences according to

(2.22a,b ) $$\begin{eqnarray}{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}}}={\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}(\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}+\unicode[STIX]{x1D716})-\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}(\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC})}{\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}}},\quad {\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}}}={\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}(\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}+\unicode[STIX]{x1D716})-\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}(\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC})}{\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}}}.\end{eqnarray}$$

In the case where the two windowing matrices overlap, i.e. the product $\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{in}\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{out}\neq 0$ , we can attain all these sensitivities with no resolvent calculations, simply by perturbing the smallest singular value of the pseudo-inverse of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D646}$ , given by $\unicode[STIX]{x1D646}^{+}=\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{in}^{\text{H}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D64D}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{-1}\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{out}^{\text{H}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}^{-1}$ . The relation

(2.23) $$\begin{eqnarray}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FF}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}}}\right)=Re[\boldsymbol{v}^{\text{H}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FF}\unicode[STIX]{x1D646}^{+}\boldsymbol{u}]\end{eqnarray}$$

provides us with the formulae

(2.24) $$\begin{eqnarray}\displaystyle {\displaystyle \frac{1}{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}} & = & \displaystyle Im[\langle \,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt},\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{in}^{\text{H}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{out}^{\text{H}}\boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt}\rangle _{\unicode[STIX]{x1D652}}],\end{eqnarray}$$

(2.25) $$\begin{eqnarray}\displaystyle {\displaystyle \frac{1}{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}}} & = & \displaystyle Re\left[\left\langle \,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt},\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{in}^{\text{H}}{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{out}^{\text{H}}\boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt}\right\rangle _{\!\unicode[STIX]{x1D652}}\right]\nonumber\\ \displaystyle & & \displaystyle -\,\frac{1}{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}}Re\left[\left\langle \unicode[STIX]{x1D648}\,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt},{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}}}\,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt}\right\rangle \right]\nonumber\\ \displaystyle & & \displaystyle +\,Re\left[\left\langle \,\boldsymbol{f}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt},\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{in}^{\text{H}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D64D}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{-1}\unicode[STIX]{x1D647}_{out}^{\text{H}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}^{-1}{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D648}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}}}\boldsymbol{q}_{m,\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}}^{opt}\right\rangle _{\!\unicode[STIX]{x1D652}}\right]\!.\end{eqnarray}$$

For the case of non-overlapping windows, the above formulae do not produce sensitivities, as (2.24) yields zero due to the direct product of the windowing matrices. Physically, the primary source of sensitivity arises from areas where the forcing overlaps with the output. In the case of the direct expression (2.21), the resolvent maps the forcing onto the output, taking advantage of an overlap of the forcing with the output; in the case of the pseudo-inverse technique no such overlap exists. A simplified version of (2.24) and (2.25), ignoring the effects of a change in input and/or output norm, has previously been used and verified by Fosas de Pando & Schmid (Reference Fosas de Pando and Schmid2017). It should be noted that the above method of efficiently extracting parametric sensitivity information is not limited to optimal forcing studies. Any similar study that is based on an SVD to find an optimal gain, and corresponding input and output structures, can benefit from the same techniques.

3.1 No mean-flow swirl

We start by considering the optimal gains for an M-flame with no mean-flow swirl, which commences by finding a steady solution to the nonlinear axisymmetric equation. This base flow, visualised by the temperature field in figure 2, represents the equilibrium point about which the governing equations are linearised to find the Jacobian matrix $\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}$ and its adjoint $\unicode[STIX]{x1D63C}_{m}^{\text{H}}$ . The optimal gains can then be computed using the above expressions; more specifically, the Lanczos SVD routine is utilised from the SLEPC library (Hernandez, Roman & Vidal Reference Hernandez, Roman and Vidal2005).

Figure 3.

The optimal forcing and output are shown for $\mathit{St}=4.21,~8.41$ and $S=0,~m=0$ . The $u^{\prime }$ velocity component of the forcing is shown and the output is represented via the energy $E^{\prime }$ . The dotted line in the output panels indicates where data are taken from for the subsequent wave-speed calculation (see main text). For an animation of the above structures, see the supplementary movies 1–4 available at https://doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2018.793.

Figure 3 presents the optimal forcing and associated response at two forcing frequencies for $m=0$ . The spatial structures for all state variables are similar and differ mainly in magnitude; hence, the shape of the optimal input and output is illustrated for only one representative variable. We note that the forcing consists of perturbations tilted against the mean flow, which generates as an output a wave confined to the flame front. This observation is typical of the Orr mechanism (Orr Reference Orr1907) in which perturbations aligned against the shear are advected by the mean flow and tilted by the mean shear (see Roy & Govindarajan (Reference Roy and Govindarajan2010) for more details). This energy amplification mechanism unravels as follows: First, the perturbations rotate, from their initial alignment against the shear, into the shear, extracting energy from the mean flow via Reynolds stresses. By overturning the perturbation structures, energy is scattered back to the mean flow via the same Reynolds-stress-based transfer process. The structures continue to be stretched by the mean shear, until dissipation dominates the final stage and diffuses the filaments. Ignoring viscous effects, the energy amplification due to the Orr mechanism can also be explained as a manifestation of Kelvin’s theorem: the circulation about a contour enclosing the initial structure (tilted against the shear) is conserved as the contour is advected by the mean flow. As the contour shortens due to advection, the velocity along it has to increase to preserve circulation. Beyond this point of maximum velocity, the contour again stretches in the shear field, and the associated velocity diminishes accordingly. Overall, we observe a transient amplification of velocity (energy), followed by ultimate decay. This process – combined with the typical flame mechanism of turning velocity perturbations into heat release at the flame front – underlies the mechanism that yields the optimal gain. For other azimuthal wavenumbers, the addition of azimuthal velocity in the optimal forcing causes a blending of the Orr mechanism with a lift-up mechanism, which utilises azimuthal shear to further contribute to the optimal gain. This blending can be seen in figure 4 where the slanted forcing (linked to the Orr mechanism) becomes less pronounced for higher azimuthal wavenumbers.

Increasing the forcing frequency decreases the wavelength of the forcing and of the output, and centres the forcing towards the middle of the annulus. This is exactly what was seen by Blanchard (Reference Blanchard2015), who used a non-swirling version of the numerical code to calculate the optimal gains for $m=0$ . We can also use his case to verify the growth-frequency curve shown in figure 5(a) for $m=0$ .

Figure 5(a) shows that increasing the azimuthal wavenumber $m$ has a positive effect on the peak gain up to the second mode. At first glance, this may seem odd since $m=1$ modes are commonly the most easily excitable owing to the fact that only they can support a non-zero radial velocity at the centreline (see Garnaud et al. Reference Garnaud, Lesshafft, Schmid and Huerre2013, for example). However, for an M-flame configuration, the flame front is confined away from the centreline, resulting in a low radial mean-shear region near the centreline and hence no advantage for the $m=1$ mode to extract energy from the mean flow. It can be hypothesised that a V-flame would show similar behaviour to an M-flame due to the flame front location being similar. In the case of other flame shapes, such as, for example, the conical flame whose flame front crosses the centreline, the $m=1$ mode should be more prominent, as the optimal forcing mechanism now has the opportunity to properly exploit this mode’s unique property.

Besides observing the spatial structure of the forcing and output, it is equally important to determine the flow variables that contribute substantially to the optimal gain; this type of analysis is performed by splitting the norm into its constituent parts. We find that the forcing consists nearly exclusively of velocity perturbations, with negligible amounts of fuel mass fraction, temperature and density fluctuations. In contrast, the optimal output contains ${\approx}42\,\%$ of each temperature and fuel mass fraction perturbations, with density fluctuations accounting for the remainder. It is not surprising that mass fraction and temperature fluctuations contribute nearly equal amounts to the optimal gain, as the two are physically linked and our selected norm has been designed to reflect this fact (Blanchard Reference Blanchard2015). The observed distribution of state variables in the optimal output structures suggests that pressure fluctuations (via unsteady heat release) are the primary output quantity. This is commonplace and typical of thermoacoustic mechanisms in which velocity perturbations cause unsteady heat release, which subsequently yields acoustic pressure fluctuations. While this mechanism has often been advanced as the primary thermoacoustic process, our analysis has not biased towards this scenario, but rather included all flow variables and their combinations as ingredients for an optimal amplification mechanism. In this effort, it is found that, although longitudinal velocity perturbations are pivotal in producing optimal gains for $m=0$ , azimuthal and radial perturbations become progressively important for higher wavenumbers.

Figure 4.

The longitudinal velocity component of the optimal forcing is shown for $\mathit{St}=4.21$ and $S=0.22$ for all wavenumbers. The dotted line shows where the plot is revolved around the axis to produce its corresponding polar plot. This clearly shows the azimuthal structures for the optimal forcing.

Figure 5.

Optimal frequency response gains versus forcing frequency for two values of swirl. The thick solid line segments for each forcing frequency indicate the computed gradients from the parametric sensitivity analysis.

Indeed, for $m=3$ the contribution of azimuthal velocity components outranks the longitudinal components in the optimal forcing structure. Clearly, this finding would have been overlooked without an unbiased computational approach. Here, we shall recall that all results depend on the chosen norm. While we have found that, for our choice of norm, the optimal response is related to thermoacoustics, special care must be taken when interpreting results in the context of thermoacoustic instabilities. Thermoacoustic instability mechanisms depend not only on the amplification of certain variables but also on the phase relationship between pressure and heat release fluctuations. As our norm does not directly contain this information, the gains and output shapes shown in this study do not necessarily link to a thermoacoustic instability.

The dominance of structures with $m=2$ can now be explained. As noted in the previous paragraph, the forcing consists mainly of velocity perturbations. For the axisymmetric case ( $m=0$ ), these velocity perturbations are entirely concentrated in the longitudinal and radial directions, but for $m>0$ we also obtain azimuthal contributions. The axisymmetric structures develop in the absence of an azimuthal pressure gradient and azimuthal mean-velocity gradients; this same situation also prevents $w^{\prime }$ perturbations from reaching the flame front and deforming it. For $m>0$ we break axisymmetry, and non-axisymmetric perturbations are sufficiently sustained to induce hydrodynamic disturbances at the flame front. Moreover, for a non-zero azimuthal wavenumber $m$ , we obtain an $O(m)$ azimuthal advection and an $O(m^{2})$ azimuthal diffusion; hence, we expect a tradeoff between an increased azimuthal velocity due to advection and diminished velocities due to viscous diffusion. Clearly, for $m=2$ this tradeoff is in favour of intensifying the frequency response gain. Starting with $m=3$ , the balance apparently tips in favour of diffusive effects, and we expect to see a further decrease in peak gain for higher azimuthal wavenumbers as diffusion becomes even more dominant.

We can see from figure 3(b,d) that the optimal output consists of waves that advect down the flame front. The amplitudes of these waves are shown in figure 6(a). Using these series, as well as the corresponding series for the other frequencies, we can calculate the wavenumber for each forcing frequency using a Hilbert transform approach. To this end, we use the fact that a complex signal $z(s)$ along the linear (dashed) path can be generated from a real signal according to

(3.2a,b ) $$\begin{eqnarray}z(s)=a(s)+\text{i}{\mathcal{H}}\{a(s)\}=A(s)\exp (\text{i}\unicode[STIX]{x1D719}(s)),\quad {\mathcal{H}}\{a(s)\}=\unicode[STIX]{x2A0D}_{-\infty }^{\infty }{\displaystyle \frac{a(s-\unicode[STIX]{x1D709})}{\unicode[STIX]{x03C0}\unicode[STIX]{x1D709}}}\,\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D709},\end{eqnarray}$$

with $s$ denoting the coordinate along the path and $a$ the amplitude of the signal. The imaginary part of $z$ consists of the Hilbert transform ${\mathcal{H}}$ of the same signal. From the phase $\unicode[STIX]{x1D719}(s)$ of this expression, we can then determine the local wavenumber $2\unicode[STIX]{x03C0}k(s)=\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D719}(s)/\text{d}s$ by simple differentiation. Computationally, this procedure can be improved upon by applying windowing techniques along the path, to circumvent excessive end effects from finite integration limits. Figure 6(b) shows the resulting local wavenumbers along the dashed paths in figure 3(b,d). All examined Strouhal numbers show a rather constant wavenumber along the flame front, with only minor shortening of the scales towards the flame tip for only the lowest Strouhal number. This finding supports the conclusion that the propagation of perturbations from the flame base towards the flame tip shows little dispersion and occurs at a non-dimensional phase speed of $c_{p}\approx 0.85$ . Animations of this associated perturbation dynamics based on linearised simulations corroborate this finding.

The phase speed has also been calculated for higher azimuthal wavenumbers and for increased mean-flow swirl, discussed more in § 3.2; the values are collected in table 4. We observe that the phase speed varies only slightly with $m$ , for either case of mean-flow swirl. This observation suggests that the propagation of perturbations towards the flame tip exhibits only a negligible amount of dispersion and that the azimuthal dependence of the perturbation is approximately preserved as it advances towards the flame tip.

Table 4.

The phase speed $c_{p}$ for all azimuthal wavenumbers, with and without mean-flow swirl.

3.2 Increased mean-flow swirl

By calculating a new base flow with a higher swirl number, we can next investigate the effect of increased mean-flow swirl on the optimal gains. We note that the new base flow has a similar M-flame temperature profile to that shown in figure 2. As a consequence, we will mostly see the effects due to the increase in swirl rather than the effects of a radically different base flow.

Figure 5(b), displaying the frequency response gains for various azimuthal wavenumbers and a non-zero swirl number, shows that there is a complete reordering in the peak gains, with $m=0$ giving the largest peak gain and all subsequent wavenumbers showing a decrease. The reordering is to be expected due to the $O(m^{2})$ diffusive effect now involving the mean-flow swirl. Owing to the presence of an azimuthal velocity in the base flow itself, the total energy exhibits increased diffusive effects, meaning that increasing $m$ results in decreased temperature perturbations at the flame front. If this were the only effect, we would still expect $m=0$ to be relatively similar to the non-swirling case; but instead we see a decrease in its gain, hinting that other physical mechanisms are at play. This issue will be further investigated in § 4.4. The composition of the optimal forcing and output are similar to the non-swirling case, indicating that the same processes for producing the optimal gain are at play. However, contrary to the non-swirling case, longitudinal velocity perturbations remain the dominant part of the forcing for all wavenumbers.

Figure 6.

Spatial signal along the flame front, to be processed into a wave-speed value for $S=0$ , $m=0$ . The lines along which the data are obtained are shown as dashed lines in figure 3(b,d).

4.1 Sensitivity with respect to the forcing frequency

In figure 5 we have shown the gradients of the gains with respect to swirl as bold line segments at each computed frequency, calculated using (2.20). By using not only the gain at each frequency but also its gradient, we are able to connect subsequent evaluation points using cubic polynomials, resulting in a smooth and continuous curve (cubic spline) for the frequency response gain. Access to the sensitivity with respect to frequency not only enables us to accurately cover a large range of frequencies by carrying out SVDs at only a few selected points, but also allows us to employ adaptive techniques in selecting the next evaluation point. For example, running a simulation for $\mathit{St}=2.80$ and $\mathit{St}=5.61$ for $m=0$ and $S=0$ , figure 5(a) shows nearly the same gain for each case; without further gradient information, this might suggest a flat region in the gain curve. However, by efficiently calculating the frequency sensitivity for both these points, a sign change is observed, suggesting that the gain curve attains a maximum between these selected frequencies. This potential maximum can be estimated by fitting a cubic spline between these two points and can be evaluated by computing an SVD at this estimated point. In the above case, the maximum can be confirmed, as can be seen in figure 5(a) with a maximum at $St=4.21$ .

4.2 Sensitivity with respect to the Reynolds number

After calculating the sensitivity with respect to the forcing frequency for a better representation of the gain curve, we now proceed to determine the sensitivities with respect to the governing parameters of the problem. First, we compute the sensitivity with respect to the Reynolds number using (2.21). In our analysis, we make the additional assumption that a small change in Reynolds number does not change the base flow appreciably; in other words, only the influence of Reynolds number changes on the perturbations is considered. This constrains the variation in Reynolds number to its effect via the equations and neglects effects due to changes in the norm. As a consequence, we compute the derivatives (2.22) by keeping the base flow constant.

Figure 7 clearly shows that increasing the Reynolds number amplifies the peak gain across all wavenumbers. This is easily explained by the fact that Reynolds number changes occur as a viscous effect for both the velocity and the temperature, but since temperature is more abundant in the optimal response, it is the decreased temperature dissipation for an increased Reynolds number that is responsible for the majority of the contribution to the sensitivity. We can also see that Reynolds-number changes enlarge the gain in proportion to its original value for both the swirling and non-swirling case, i.e. a higher gain shows more significant increases. This will favour gain distributions with sharper peaks, concentrating the optimal frequencies to a more narrow region.

Figure 7.

Sensitivity of the optimal gain with respect to the Reynolds number for $S=0$ and $S=0.22$ .

4.3 Sensitivity with respect to the Mach number

We next consider the sensitivity with respect to the Mach number. Again, we assume a constant base flow, but now consider the effect of changes in norm due to the explicit dependence of the Chu norm on the Mach number. In contrast to the sensitivity with respect to the Reynolds number, where only one physical mechanism has been involved, changes in the Mach number instigate corresponding variations via multiple processes.

Figure 8.

Sensitivity of optimal gain with respect to the Mach number for $S=0$ and $S=0.22$ .

We see from figure 8 that, similar to the previous case, positive Mach-number changes are acting as amplifiers of the peak gains. This amplification is many orders of magnitude larger than in the Reynolds-number case, however, showing that the frequency response output is highly sensitive to changes in the Mach number. Even though we now consider effects due to the change in the norm, the relative contribution of this effect to the overall sensitivity is found to be rather negligible. In other optimal forcing studies, such as the work of Fosas de Pando & Schmid (Reference Fosas de Pando and Schmid2017), the Mach number is shown to be responsible for mode shifting rather than simple amplification. This mode shifting is reflected in a sign change in the sensitivity at a maximum or minimum of the peak gain and is caused by a modification of the acoustic travel time, thus causing the optimal forcing to move out of phase with the optimal input. The reason we do not see this mode-switching behaviour in our case is due to the fact that the mechanism responsible for the optimal gain is based on hydrodynamic rather than acoustic disturbances.

Reynolds-number and Mach-number sensitivities (see figures 7 and 8) show similar behaviour, except for the magnitude, as both the Reynolds and Mach numbers appear in the coefficient of the temperature diffusion in the energy equation (2.3); therefore, they both produce similar contributions to the sensitivity – except that their effects are $O(Re^{-1})\approx 7\times 10^{-4}$ and $O(Ma^{-2})\approx 1\times 10^{2}$ , respectively, giving rise to a difference of six orders in magnitude.

4.4 Sensitivity with respect to the swirl number

Similarly to the cases above, we can calculate the sensitivity with respect to the swirl number using (2.21). However, unlike the previous examples, changes in swirl number manifest themselves not via terms in the linearised equations but entirely via the base flow; this means that we must consider base-flow changes when computing the derivatives (2.2). New base flows with slightly higher swirl numbers have been determined for this purpose. The temperature component of the base-flow derivatives for various swirl numbers is displayed in figure 10. Besides a rather uniform influence along the flame front, it shows a concentration of sensitivity amplitudes at the flame tip; sensitivities with respect to other variables display similar qualitative behaviour.

Figure 9.

Sensitivity of the optimal gain with respect to the swirl number for $S=0$ and $S=0.22$ .

Figure 10.

Temperature component of the derivative of the base flow with respect to the swirl number, shown for four different swirl numbers.

Figure 11.

Frequency response gain versus swirl number for all considered wavenumbers and $\mathit{St}=4.21$ . The thick solid line segments represent the gradient at that point. The plot is interpolated between consecutive calculated gains using cubic Hermite splines to match both the values and gradients.

Figure 9(a), attained for zero swirl, reconfirms the behaviour shown previously: axisymmetric ( $m=0$ ) modes are characterised by smaller sensitivities when compared to non-axisymmetric, higher modes. The case of non-zero mean-flow swirl, shown in figure 9(c), reveals a more interesting behaviour. First, all modes are now displaying an increase in gain for high Strouhal numbers. In addition, for the Strouhal numbers where the peak gains have been found, we observe a decrease for all modes, except the $m=3$ mode, which exhibits a slight increase. Nonetheless, these effects are small compared to the sensitivities we saw in the non-swirling case. The axisymmetric ( $m=0$ ) and shift ( $m=1$ ) modes are showing the greatest sensitivity. This can be directly related to our earlier observations where we argued that the $O(m^{2})$ diffusive effects involving the mean-flow swirl in the base flow are responsible for the observed decrease in the peak gains. However, this argument cannot explain the decrease in the axisymmetric ( $m=0$ ) mode.

We can note from figure 11 that for $\mathit{St}=4.21$ the gain for all wavenumbers behaves linearly across the range $0\leqslant S\leqslant 0.09$ . As discussed in § 3.1, this tendency can be attributed to azimuthal diffusion terms. In fact, the constant nature of the $m=0$ mode throughout this range provides further evidence, as this mode is not affected by azimuthal diffusion. Beyond this range, the behaviour for all modes begins to change in a nonlinear manner. This latter behaviour must then be ascribed to nonlinear changes in the base flow as the $m=0$ mode starts to be damped. Figure 10 shows that, as we add swirl, there are drastic and fundamental variations in the base flow at the flame front; these variations and the corresponding gradients become larger as the swirl is increased further. For low swirl, the bulk of the base-flow sensitivity arises at the flame tip, but as swirl increases we notice a shift towards locations of high sensitivity along the entire flame front, leading to substantial base-flow changes for small increases in swirl. It is these more complicated changes in the base flow, observed at higher swirl numbers, that give rise to the above-mentioned nonlinear behaviour, such as the damping of the axisymmetric ( $m=0$ ) mode.

4.5 Validation of swirl sensitivities

The validation of gain sensitivities with respect to the Reynolds number has been reported earlier (Skene & Schmid Reference Skene and Schmid2017). A sensitivity analysis with respect to the Mach number will follow the same conceptual steps, since both parameters enter directly through the linearised governing equations. Gradients with respect to the swirl number proceed along a different path, involving changes in the base flow that bring about changes in the frequency response. For this reason, we test our adjoint-based sensitivities by predicting the frequency response gain at a swirl number of $S=0.074$ using the expansion

(4.1) $$\begin{eqnarray}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{pred.}\big|_{S=0.074}\approx \unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}\big|_{S=0}+0.074{\displaystyle \frac{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}}{\unicode[STIX]{x2202}S}}\bigg|_{S=0}.\end{eqnarray}$$

Table 5 summarises the results of our test. We see that the adjoint-based sensitivities are able to acceptably predict the decrease in gain experienced by increasing the swirl for all azimuthal wavenumbers. The relative prediction error is more accurate for lower wavenumbers (with values far less than 1 %); for higher azimuthal wavenumbers, the relative error rises to a few per cent. For predictions of the frequency response gain at higher swirl numbers, we have to recall the nonlinear behaviour discussed in the previous section. Consequently, a linear extrapolation, based on (4.1), is expected to deteriorate in accuracy in this parameter regime. In this case, we replace the extrapolation approach by an interpolation approach: more specifically, we harness the gain values at specific Strouhal numbers together with their adjoint-based gradients with respect to the swirl number to construct a cubic Hermite spline between these two evaluation points. Evaluating the spline at $S=0.15$ produces an estimate for the gain at this Strouhal number. In this manner we are able to better capture the nonlinear gain–swirl relation for higher swirl numbers. Table 5 verifies that the above cubic Hermite interpolation technique produces predictions with relative errors less than 1 %, even for the higher azimuthal wavenumbers.

Table 5.

Predicted gains $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{lin.\,pred.}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{cub.\,pred.}$ , actual gains $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{SVD}$ and relative errors for $S=0.074$ . The predictions are made using linear extrapolation or cubic Hermite interpolation. The corresponding errors are shown for both cases.

This above validation case also brings out an important point in our parametric sensitivity analysis: the inclusion of gradient effects stemming from changes in the chosen norm. If we examine the swirl sensitivity at $\mathit{St}=4.21$ for the axisymmetric case ( $m=0$ ), we find a value of $\unicode[STIX]{x2202}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}/\unicode[STIX]{x2202}S\approx 41$ , suggesting a very minor susceptibility to changes in swirl (see figure 9 a). This small value is obtained owing to a cancellation between an increase in gain of $1585$ directly from the equation and a decrease in gain of $1544$ due to associated changes in the norm. In addition, we can state that the bulk of the decrease in gain due to the norm stems from the norm of the output. This is not entirely surprising as the output is three orders of magnitude larger than the forcing. If we had not included the effect due to changes in the norm, we would have grossly overpredicted a change in gain due to variations in the swirl number. As an aside, this also stresses the importance and motivates the use of physically relevant norms to measure output quantities. In the above example, using the convenient, but unphysical, $2$ -norm would suggest sensitivities that would not be observed under realistic conditions.